Bui  I - ’.'■  *‘.'-d“ 


LIBRARY  ' 

OF  THE 

U N I VERS  ITY 
Of  1 LLI N O 1 S 
Received  by  bequest  from 
Albert  H.  Lybyer 
Professor  of  History 
University  of  Illinois 
1916-1949 


Digitized  by  The  Internet  Archive 
in  2017  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign  Alternates 


https://archive.org/details/greatmengreatwomOOunse 


AND  (;rbat 


OF  HISTORY 


THEIR  PORTRAITS 


FROM  THE  RARE  AND  AUTHENTIC  COLLECTION  IN  THE  MUNICH  PINAKOTHEK 

WITH  BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHES 


AUTHORIZED  EDITION 


GKO.  KIRCIINER  & Co. 

N E W - Y O R K 


Copyright  i88y  Geo.  Kirchner  <2f  Co..,  New-York 


4 SK 
/ Ao^5 


'I'able  of  Contents 


Anne,  Queen  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  1664 — 1714 
Augustus,  surnamed  »the  Strongs,  Elector  of  Saxony  after 
1694  and  King  of  Poland  1670 — 1733  .... 

Buckingham,  George  Villiers  Duke  of.  Minister  of  James  I 
and  Charles  I of  England,  1592 — 1628  .... 

Charles  I,  King  of  England  1600 — 1649 

-.^Charles  V,  German  Emperor  1500 — 1556 

Cicogna  Pasquale,  Doge  of  Venice  1585 — 1595 

Cromwell,  Oliver,  1599 — 1658 

Elizabeth  of  Bourbon,  Wife  of  King  Philip  IV  of  Spain, 

1602 — 1644 

Elizabeth,  Queen  of  England  1533 — 1603 

Elizabeth,  Empress  of  Russia  1709 — 1762 

Frederick  II,  King  of  Prussia  1712 — 1786 

George  I,  Elector  of  Hanover  1660 — 1727 

- Gustavus  II  Adolphus,  King  of  Sweden  1594 — 1632 
Henrietta  Maria,  Queen  of  England  1609 — 1O66  . 

.Henry  II,  King  of  Prance  1519 — 1559  

^ Henry  IV,  King  of  Prance  1553 — 1610 

Henry  VIII,  King  of  England  1491  — 1547  

James  I,  King  of  England  156O — 1625 

James  11,  King  of  England  1633 — 1701 

Jerome  Bonaparte,  King  of  Westphalia  1784 — 1860 
Don  Juan  d' Austria,  Siianish  General  of  the  l6‘''  Century 

1547— 157S  

• Julius  II,  Pope  1441  — 1513 

Lafayette , Gilbert  Marquis  de,  French  General  and 

Statesman  1757 — 1^34 

'Louis  Xlll,  King  of  I'rance  1601  — 1643 

Louis  XI\',  King  of  France  1638  -1715 

I Louis  XV,  King  of  I'rance  1710 — >774  

I Louis  XVI,  King  of  France  1754 — *793  

, Louis  XVIII,  King  of  France  1755 — >824 


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I . Maria  Antoinette,  Wife  of  Louis  XVI,  Queen  of  I'rance 

j '755—1793  

I Mary  II,  Queen  of  England  1662 — 1695 

> Maria  of  Medici,  Queen  of  P'rance  1573 — 1642 

I Mary  Stuart,  Queen  of  Scotland  1542 — 1587  . . . . 
.Maria  Theresia  I,  Roman  Empress,  Queen  of  Hungary  and 

Bohemia  1717  — 1780 

Marlborough,  John  Churchill  Duke  of,  British  Commander 

and  Statesman  1650 — 1722 

Maximilian  I,  Duke  of  Bavaria  1573 — 1651 

, Maximilian  I,  German  Emperor  1459 — 1519  . . . . 

, Mazarin,  Cardinal,  P'rench  Minister  of  the  1 7"'  Century 

1602 — 1661 

^ Metternich,  Clemens  Wenzel  Nepomuk  Lothar  Prince  of, 

Austrian  Statesman  1773 — 1859 

^'FJapoleon  I,  Emperor  of  the  P'rench  1769 — 1821 

Nelson,  Horatio  Viscount,  English  Admiral  1758—1805 
^ Peter  1,  the  Great,  Czar,  and  afterwards  Emjieror  of 

Russia  1672 — 1725 

Philii)  II,  King  of  Spain  1527 — 1598 

Philij)  1\',  King  of  Spain  1605 — 1665 

Pitt,  William,  the  \'ounger,  English  Statesman  1759 — 1806 
Riclielieu , Cardinal  Armand  Jean  Dujilessis  Duke  of, 
French  Statesman  1585  — 1642 

Ulrich,  Duke  of  Wilrtemberg  1487 — 1550  ’ 

Washington,  George,  First  Presiilent  of  the  United  States 
1732—1799  

Wellington,  Arthur  Wellesley  Duke  of,  British  General 
and  Statesman  1769 — 1852 

X '11'"'"  I of  Nassau-t  irange,  Stadtholder  of  the  Netherlands 
'533  1584  

William  1\',  King  of  Great  Britain,  Irelaiul  and  Hanover 
1765—1837  


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37 

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49 

44 


42 


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Julius 


II,  Pope  1503-  1513 


Born  144.1,  died  21  February  1513 


Po])e  Julius  II  — properly  Julianus  della  Rovere  — was  born  at  Albizuola,  in  1441.  His 
eminent  talents  were  recognized  by  his  uncle,  the  pope  Sextus  IV,  to  whom  he  was  indebted 
for  promotion  to  ecclesiastical  dignities.  In  every  iiosition,  he  had  shown  the  traits  of  a man 
born  to  rule,  and  the  same  character  was  maintained  after  the  of  November,  1502.  when 
he  was  elected  Pojie.  His  bold  and  resolute  policy  might  have  made  him  rather  a great 
general  in  warfare  than  a ruler  of  the  Church.  During  his  pontificate,  he  was  strenuous  in 
his  measures  for  the  defence  and  extension  of  the  papal  dominion  in  Italy,  for  the  liberation 
of  Italy  from  foreign,  and  especially  from  French,  control.  To  obtain  these  ends,  Julius  would 
act  in  alliance  with  various  jiaitics,  to  whom  he  did  not  consider  himself  bound,  save  by  the 
requirements  of  his  own  able  jjolicy. 

He  expelled  from  Italy  the  notorious  Caesar  Borgia,  concpicrcd  Bologna  and  other 
towns,  and  in  1509,  joined  the  league  of  Louis  XII  of  France  and  the  Emperor  Maximilian, 
against  the  republic  of  Venice.  When  Venice  had  restored  to  the  Holy  See  the  coast-lamls 
that  had  been  seized,  Julius  II,  in  1511,  joined  the  so-called  »holy  league*  of  \'cnice,  Spain, 

England  and  Switzerland,  against  France,  and  in  the  war  soon  following,  he  personally  led 

(ju  his  (iwn  troops.  In  1511,  a Council  was  convoked  by. the  Emperor  Maximilian  and  Louis 
XIl,  to  meet  at  Pisa,  and  consult  on  measures  of  Church  Reformation;  and  the  Poiie,  in 
prompt  o])])Osition  to  their  design,  projected  a general  Council  to  assemble  in  the  Lateran, 
1512.  He  was  still  active  in  the  ])rosccntion  of  far-reaching  designs,  even  in  the  latest  year 
of  his  life.  He  died  on  the  21*'  of  Februai}',  1513. 

Julius  11  had  an  extraordinary  i)rescnce.  His  portrait  shows  us  a tall  but  lank  man, 
with  fiery  and  i)enetrating  eyes,  energetic  (almost  hard)  features,  and  wearing  in  his  latest  years 
a long  dependent  beard,  which  in  his  time  was  exceptional.  So  we  are  told  by  the  poitr.iit 

painted  b)'  Rafael,  who  in  1508  was  invited  b)  the  Pcjpe  to  aid  in  the  decoration  of  the 

X'atican.  Julius,  amid  all  his  warfare,  knew  well  how  to  care  for  the  arts  and  sciences.  1 U‘ 
invited  also  to  Rome  the  gre;it  artists,  liramante  ;ind  Michel-.Xngelo.  I'he  foundation  stone 
of  St.  Peter's  Church  was  laid  by  Julius  II. 


/',  •//// A.t/’/t.if'/ 


lULES  1[]1 


IVlaximilian  I,  German  Emperor,  1493  1519 

Born  22  March  1459,  died  12  January  1519 


Maximilian  I,  when  thirty-four  years  old,  succeeded  his  father,  Frederick  111,  who  died 
in  1493  — the  last  of  the  Oerman  Emperors  who  where  crowned  at  Rome.  'I'he  accession 
of  Maximilian  was  for  f lermany  the  beginning  of  a transition  from  mediaeval  to  modern  culture, 
and  led  to  an  extension  of  the  empire’s  claims.  Eurgundy  and  the  Netherlands  were  gained 
by  the  Emperor’s  marriage  with  Maria  of  Eurgundy,  daughter  of  Charles  the  Eold,  and  by  the 
marriage  of  his  son,  Philip,  with  Johanna  of  Castile,  a claim  of  succession  to  the  throne  of 
Spain  was  secured.  Again,  by  the  marriage  of  his  grandson,  Ferdinand,  with  Anna  of  Hungary, 
a prospect  of  ruling  over  Eohemia  and  Hungary  was  opened. 

At  the  Diet  of  Worms  (1495)  the  Emperor  instituted  the  Imperial  Court  of  .Appeal, 
for  the  conservation  of  a peri)etual  Peace  of  the  Empire ; and  to  make  easier  the  exercise  of 
its  authority,  he  divided  Germany  into  ten  large  circles.  Meanwhile,  he  was  studious  to  aid 
the  progress  of  art  and  science.  'I'he  poetic  and  ])rosaic  literature  of  liis  time  is  tilled  with 
praise  of  his  courage  and  his  success  in  warfare;  but  he  failed  in  his  war  against  Eouis  XII  of 
P’rance,  and  conscfiucntly  lost  .Milan. 

At  once  mediaeval  in  his  chivalrous  love  of  warfare,  and  romantic  adventures,  but 
modern  in  his  j>atronage  of  art  and  science  — Maximilian  1 united  in  his  jierscm  the  middle 
ages  and  modern  times.  He  was  es|)ecially  the  child  of  his  times«. 


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Henry  VIIT,  King  of  England  1509 — 1547 

Horn  28  June  1491,  (lied  28  January  151.7 


Henry  the  Eight's  accession  to  the  throne  was  hailed  with  national  jubilation.  He 
had  shining  endowments  of  mind  and  of  body.  His  extensive  learning  had  chiefly  a theo- 
logical bias ; his  i)resence  was  made  imposing  by  native  dignity  and  manly  beauty.  Meanwhile, 
he  had  attained,  even  in  his  youth,  a masterly  power  of  concealing  his  own  real  character 
At  the  outset  of  his  career,  no  man  suspected  or  foreboded  that  he  was  at  heart  an  egotistic 
despot. 

Led  by  political  motives,  he  married  Catherine  of  Arragon,  the  widow  of  his  brother, 
and  the  aunt  of  the  Emperor,  Charles  V.  She  bore  to  him  the  daughter  to  whom  history 
afterwards  gave  the  title  of  the  »bloody  Mary«. 

Henry  VllI,  early  in  his  reign,  acted  in  alliance  with  the  Emperor  Charles  V,  against 
France;  but  later  he  was  the  friend  of  Francis  I,  whom  he  aided  in  warfare  against  his  enemy. 
His  opposition  to  the  Emperor  was  made  useful  for  Henry’s  own  purpose  of  divorcing  his  first 
wife  — who  was  the  aunt  of  Charles  V.  Her  strictly  virtuous  life  had  already  made  her 
presence  felt,  as  an  unwelcome  restraint  of  the  King’s  will.  He  now  found  a pretext  for  divorce 
in  the  fact  that  she  was  his  brother’s  widow,  and  consequently  her  near  relationship  had  made 
her  second  marriage  invalid,  and  unlawful  as  defined  by  canon  law.  The  king’s  real  motive 
in  seeking  for  a divorce  was  the  fact,  that  already  he  had  resolved  to  marry  another.  Catholic 
historians  (who  of  course  detest  Henry,  as  the  destroyer  of  their  Church  in  England),  have 
assured  us,  that  his  passion  for  the  charming  Anna  Boleyn  had  made  the  divorce  of  Catherine 
inevitable.  On  the  other  hand,  Protestant  scholars  have  shown,  that  Anna  Boleyn  first  returned 
from  France,  where  she  had  been  educated,  in  1527;  but  the  king's  attempts  to  gain  a divorce 
of  his  first  wife  had  begun  as  soon  as  1521.  However  this  might  be,  he  was  resolved  to  move 
heaven  and  earth,  to  carry  his  own  will  into  effect.  To  help  him.  Bishop  Cranmer  addressed 
appeals  for  aid  to  all  foreign  Universities,  and  even  to  the  rulers  of  Jewish  Synagogues.  Excejiting 
Luther  and  Melanchthon,  the  most  celebrated  divines  of  the  time  declared  the  first  marriage 
unlawful.  Pope  Leo  X,  however,  resolutely  refused  to  grant  his  consent  to  a second  marriage ; 
and  Henry,  therefore,  resolved  to  separate  himself  and  his  kingdom  from  the  Holy  See.  Moreover, 
prosjrects  of  gaining  for  his  own  use  the  riches  of  the  Church  in  England,  and  a vast  extension 
of  the  royal  power,  acted  also  as  motives,  jrerhaps  almost  as  powerfully  as  the  king’s  passionate 
love  of  Anna,  fie  now  compelled  the  English  Clergy  to  admit  and  declare  on  oath  that,  according 
to  a most  ancient  statute,  the  king  had  supremacy  over  the  Church  in  England ; and  on  the  1 4th 
of  November  1532  he  married  Anna  Bolejn.  The  I’arliament  was  now  compelled  by  royal 
power,  to  declare  that  succession  to  the  throne  must  belong  to  the  offs])ring  of  this  second 
marriage.  In  accordance  with  this  law,  England’s  greatest  ruling  power  Elizabeth  — succeeded 
to  the  throne. 

Sir  'Fhomas  More  and  Bishop  Fisher  (of  Rochester^  had  to  the  last  refused  to  give 
tlieir  sanction  to  the  king’s  divorce;  and  consequently  both  were  now  i)ut  to  death.  Henry’s 
cruel  and  bloodthirsty  nature  revealed  itself  more  and  more.  Scarcely  four  years  liad  ])assed 
since  their  marriage  when  the  king  showed  himself  weary  of  Anna,  his  second  wife,  against 
whom  false  charges  of  infidelity  were  urged.  She  was  of  course  condemned  and  executetl, 
and  next  day  Henry  married  jane  Seymour.  His  earnest  wish  was  fulfilled  when  by  this  third 
wife,  lie  was  made  father  of  a son  and  heir;  but  very  soon  afterwards  the  (pieen  died. 

In  order  to  gain  the  alliance  and  friendship  of  Protestant  I’rinces  on  the  continent, 
Henry  next  married,  without  delay,  the  Princess  Ann  of  Cleves,  but,  with  almost  ccpial  exjie- 
dition,  they  were  sejiarated  by  tlie  king’s  own  authority.  Soon  afterwards,  he  married  Catherine 
Howard.  Ap[)arently  some  real  grounds  were  found  for  the  charges  of  unfaithfulness  urgctl 
against  this  (lueen,  and  certain  courtiers  were  found  guilty  as  her  admirers.  They  were  alike 
condemned  and  executed,  12  February,  1542.  Henry  was,  in  fact,  a thorough  wife-mur 
deier;  a Royal  bluebeartl!  And  yet  — as  in  tlie  case  of  Bluebeard  — there  was  found,  at 
last,  a wife  wlio  could  manage  or  rule  even  such  a husband.  This  last  queen,  Catherine  Parr 
(the  fair  widow  of  Lord  Latimerj  led  the  King  in  her  own  way,  and  often  to  a good  end. 
He  allowed  tlie  hereditary  rights  of  his  two  daugthers,  Mary  and  Elizabeth,  whose  claims 
he  once  had  set  aside.  He  was  now  reconciled  with  the  Emperor,  and  the  costly  warfaret 
against  France  was  ended.  But  even  Catherine’s  inlluence  failed  to  cpiell  the  fierceness  of 
Henry’s  temper.  He  died  28  January  1547;  and  the  latest  utterance  from  the  royal  lips  was 
a sentence  of  death  pronounced  on  the  Duke  of  Suffolk. 


3 


Ulrich,  Duke  of 


W urtemberg*, 


Born  1487,  died  1550 


1498  1550 


I'lrich,  son  of  Count  Henry  of  Wiiitemberg,  brother  of  the  reigning  duke,  Eberhard  II, 
\yas  born  in  14S7.  AEhen  the  latter  was  deposed,  Ulrich’s  father  was  the  nearest  heir,  but 
his  feebleness  of  mind  made  him  incapable  of  assuming  the  government.  Consequently,  Ulrich, 
then  only  eleven  years  old,  was  appointed  as  successor  of  his  uncle.  The  education  of  the 
youth  was  confided  to  the  care  of  Count  Etirstenberg,  aided  by  twelve  councillors.  A want  of 
union  in  their  advice  was,  probably,  the  cause  of  their  failure.  'I'he  youth’s  abilities,  naturally 
good,  were  never  rightly  developed.  His  majority  was  asserted  by  the  Emperor,  in  1503, 
when  Ulrich  was  only  sixteen  years  old  : and  he  began  his  reign  by  imposing  on  his  subject.s 
intolerably  heavy  taxes,  mostly  raised  to  pay  debts  incurred  by  his  own  licentious  conduct. 
This  e.xcited,  among  the  peasantry  the  insurrection  called  »the  Bund  (or  E^nionl  of  Poor 
Conrad«,  by  which  both  the  duke  and  the  nobility  were  threatened.  'I'he  nobility  also  had 
suffered  under  L'lrich’s  tyrannous  rule;  but  he  now  came  forward  to  aid  them  — chiefly  in  the 
Tubingen  'Ercaty  of  1514,  which  was  sanctioned  by  the  Emperor  — and  the  peasants  were 
soon  defeated. 

bUrich,  soon  afterwards,  was  denounced  Iry  the  leading  men  of  the  Suabian  League. 
His  murder  of  Hans  von  HiUten,  and  his  cruel  treatment  of  his  wife  (the  sister  of  William  IV 
of  Bavaria)  were  especially  condemned  by  Ulrich  von  Hutten,  brother  of  the  murdered  man, 
and  by  V'illiam  of  Bavaria,  both  members  of  the  League.  By  their  intervention,  the  Emperor 
fin  1516)  was  led  to  issue  his  imperial  ban  against  Ulrich.  It  was  soon  recalled,  and  again 
the  League  was  defied  by  Ulrich,  who  seized  as  his  own  the  imperial  town  a of  Rcutlingen. 
In  consequence  of  this  act,  he  was  attacked  by  the  League’s  army  and  driven  out  of  his  dukedom. 
'The  validity  of  this  cx])ulsion  was  declared  at  Augsburg  in  1519,  when  the  forfeited 
land  was  given  to  the  House  of  Hapsburg.  In  a restless  search  for  friends,  to  aid  him  in 
winning  back  his  land,  Idrich  now  wandered  from  court  to  court,  until  1534,  when  his  kinsman, 
Philip  of  Hessen,  by  force  of  arms,  regained  for  him  the  dukedom;  but  (m  the  condition, 
that  Ulrich  would  henceforth  aid  the  Reformation  in  Wiirtemberg.  Later  he  took  part  in  the 
Schmalkald  \Var,  and  conse(iuently  had  to  pay  fines  and  cede  some  districts.  He  died 
in  1550. 


•cG4^- 


Charles  V,  German  Emperor,  1519  - 1556 

Born  24.  February  1500,  died  21  September  1556 


Charles  V,  born  on  the  24'’’  of  February  1500,  was  the  son  of  Fhilip,  Archduke  of 
Austria , by  his  wife  Johanna  (heiress  to  the  throne  of  Spain)  and,  as  the  grandson  of  the 
emperor  Maximilian  I,  inherited  a vast,  complex  dominion  over  lands  never  before  united  under 
a European  monarch.  Aided  by  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  Charles  was  elected  emperor  in  1519, 
when  Francis  I of  France  was  the  rival  candidate.  I'he  emperor,  only  nineteen  years  old, 
had  been  educated  in  Spain , and  knew  nothing  of  the  great  controversy  then  disturbing 
Cermany.  He  was  therefore  incapable  of  sympathy  with  the  people  in  their  contest  for  religious 
freedom;  and  in  1521,  at  Worms,  he  condemned  the  Reformation  — thus  placing  himself  in 
opposition  to  demands  that  became  more  and  more  urgent  during  his  reign,  and  made  his 
rule  difficult  in  the  extreme. 

In  Italy  and  Burgundy,  the  Emperor’s  claims  were  opjjosed  by  his  rival  Francis  I, 
and  the  result  was  a long  warfare,  consisting  of  four  wars.  In  the  first,  Charles,  in  alliance 
with  the  Pope  Leo  X,  was  victorious,  especially  in  the  battle  of  Pavia,  where  his  rival  was 
made  a prisoner.  In  1526  the  Peace  of  Madrid  ended  this  first  war.  The  second  war  was 
on  the  whole  successful.  Charles  defeated  the  Holy  League  of  Cognac.  Charles  of  Bourbon 
(who  had  come  over  to  the  side  of  the  Emjjeror)  captured  Rome;  and  Clenoa  severed  itself 
from  France;  but  Burgundy  was  forfeited.  Charles,  then  made  a speedy  journey  in  to  Italy, 
and  at  Bologna  was  crowned  as  Phnjjeror,  and  as  King  of  Lombardy.  This  second  war  was 
closed  by  the  Peace  of  Cambray  (1529)  in  which  Charles  lost  the  greater  part  of  all  that  the 
first  war  had  gained. 

After  1530,  the  Emperor  postponed  a further  consideration  of  Protestant  claims.  He 
now  required  a union  of  all  Herman  Princes,  to  oppose  the  'I’urks,  whose  forces  he  defeated, 
esjjecially  by  the  capture  of  Tunis  (1535)  where  twenty  thousand  CInistian  slaves  were  liberated. 
.Meanwhile  Francis  I had  comjucred  Savoy.  His  long  series  of  contests  against  the  Emperor 
was  interrupted  (in  1538)  by  the  »ten  years  truce«  of  Nice  (soon  broken)  and  at  last  wartare 
was  ended  by  the  Peace  of  ('rjs])y  (1544'!. 

Charles  now  turned  his  attention  to  the  affairs  of  (lermany,  where  the  Schmalkald 
Alliance  of  Protestant  Princes  had  been  formed  in  1531.  I'he  want  of  closer  union  in  their 
councils  led  to  their  defeat  by  the  Emperor,  at  Mtihlberg  in  1547;  but  it  was  especially 
caused  by  Maurice  (jf  Saxony,  who  aided  the  imperial  army.  \\’hen  he  had  gained  his  object, 
he  returned  to  aid  the  Protestants,  whose  position  was  then  greatly  strengthened.  In  the 
.\ugsburg  Interim  (1548)  Charles  conceded  their  demands  for  administration  of  the  Sacrament 
under  two  forms  and  for  the  marriage  of  tire  clergy;  but  their  full  demand  of  religious  freedom 
was  first  granted  at  the  Treaty  of  I’assau,  in  1552.  Meanwhile,  Maurice  had  iormed  against 
Charles  a secret  alliance  with  Henry  II  of  France. 

In  1556,  the  Empercjr  resigned  the  government,  leaving  (lermany  to  his  brother 
Ferdinand,  and  Spain,  with  Italy  and  the  Netherlands,  to  his  son  I’hilij).  Worn  out  in  mind 
and  body,  Charles  then  retired  to  the  monastery  San  \'uste,  in  Sj)ain,  where  he  died  on  the 
2i'’‘  of  I'ebruary,  1558. 


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PR0GENIES«DIVV:H<  OyiNTVS  ‘5IC<  caroivs  ille 
Imp  ERIE  CAESAR*  LVMINA'  ET  • ORA  ‘TVLIT 
AET  • SVAE  * X X XI 

Ann  * m * d ‘ XXXI 


Henry  II,  King  of  France,  15-17  -1550 

IJorn  31  March  1519,  died  10  Jidy  1559 


Henry  II,  King  of  France,  second  son  of  King  Francis  1 and  his  wife , Claudia 
(daughter  of  Louis  XIL  was  born  at  St.  Germain  en  Laye,  31  March,  1519.  He  lived  in 
Spain  as  a hostage,  from  1526  to  1529,  and  was  married  to  Catherine  de’  Medici,  with  whom 
Italian  manners  were  introduced  into  France.  After  his  accession  to  the  throne,  1547,  the 
l•'rench  Court  was  utterly  changed  in  character  and  appearance.  Old  officers  were  dismissed; 
others  who  had  been  expelled  by  Francis  I returned;  Diana  of  Poitiers  (once  mistress  of 
Francis  I,  but  now,  in  alliance  with  the  Constable  de  Montmorency)  exercised  a strong  influence 
over  the  \oung  King,  and  at  a later  time,  the  Guise  party  made  themselves  absolute  in  the 
government,  which  was,  in  fact,  controlled  by  the  ambitious  brothers,  Duke  Francis  and  the 
Cardinal,  Charles  of  Loraine.  At  home  the  Reformed  were  persecuted,  and  their  goods  were 
confiscated;  and  abroad  warfare  was  stirred  up,  to  make  the  services  of  the  Guises  seem 
indispensable.  'I'hus  Henry  was  made  to  begin  a war  with  England,  by  which  he  won  back 
lloulogne,  in  1550.  The  religious  dissensions  prevalent  in  Germany  were  next  made  serviceable 
to  France.  'I'he  Protestants  led  by  Maurice  of  Saxony,  were  induced  to  support  his  alliance 
with  Henry  against  the  Emperor;  and  the  treaty,  signed  at  Chambord  in  1552,  was  very  soon 
followed  by  successes  won  for  Henry.  He  cairtured  easily  Toul  and  Verdun,  also  Nancy,  and 
a part  of  Alsace.  The  fortress  of  Metz  fell  by  treachery,  on  the  lo'*'  of  April,  1552,  and 
could  not  be  re-conquered  by  the  Duke  of  Alba.  The  war  in  Italy  had  results  less  favourable 
on  the  side  of  Henry  and  — wearied  by  its  continuation  — he  signed  in  1556,  at  Vaucelles,  a 

treaty  for  a five  years’  truce.  This  treaty  was  broken  in  the  next  year,  when  the  Duke  ot 

Guise  — acting  with  the  sanction  of  the  Pope,  Paul  IV  — attacked,  without  success,  the  army 
led  by  Alba.  Meanwhile,  in  the  Netherlands,  the  fortune  of  war  was  against  the  French  army 

led  by  Montmorency,  who  esi)ecially  suffered  defeat  at  St.  (Quentin,  in  1557.  Henry  II,  now 

almost  desi)airing,  made  the  Duke  of  Guise  governor  of  the  whole  kingdom,  and  success  at 
first  attended  him.  He  re-captured  Galais,  in  1 558,  and  then  took  the  fortress  of  Thionville. 
The  triumph  of  the  Guise  party  seemed  comi)lete,  when  Mary  Stuart,  in  1558,  married  the 
Dauphin;  but  in  the  same  year,  the  French  were  defeated  by  the  Spanish  forces,  at  Gravclincs, 
and  Elizabeth  acceded  to  the  throne  of  England.  To  oi)|)ose  the  spread  of  Protestantism,  it  was 
demanded  now  that  France  must  act  in  concert  with  Spain.  In  1559,  therefore,  Henry  11 
signed  the  treaty  of  Ghateau-Gambresis,  concluded  with  Spain  and  England,  and  confirmed,  as 
the  King  had  intended,  by  the  marriage  of  Elizabeth,  his  oldest  daughter,  with  Philip  11  ot 
Spain.  To  celebrate  their  union,  festivities  t(jok  jilace,  among  them  a grand  tournament,  in 
which  the  Earl  of  .Montmorency,  by  accident,  inflicted  on  the  King  a wound  in  the  right  eye 
which,  after  ten  days,  proved  fatal,  10  July,  1559. 

Henry  II  left  France,  exhausted  by  party  strife  and  war,  and  burdened  with  debts 
amounting  to  forty  millions  of  lix'res.  He  had  ambition  to  win  renown,  and  was  not  (|uite 
destitute  of  energy  and  jarlitical  abilit}' ; but  his  good  (pialities  were  l ast  into  the  shade  by  a 
want  of  linn  and  independent  resolution.  Through  this  defect,  he  yielded  himsclt,  as  an 
unresisting  sacrifice,  to  the  influence  of  others;  and  his  Gourt  was  made  a revolting  exhibitiim 
f)f  \'i<  e. 


6 


‘9 


Alary  Stuart,  Queen  of  Scotland,  1542-  1568 

Born  7 December  1542,  died  8 February  1587 


Mary  Stuart,  born,  7 December,  1542,  daughter  of  James  V of  Scotland,  and  Maria 
of  Loraine,  received  her  education  in  France,  and  in  1558  was  married  to  the  Dauphin  (after- 
wards Francis  II  of  France).  He  died  in  1560,  and  Mary  returned  to  Scotland  in  the  year 
1561,  when  the  Reformation  had  already  been  urged  on  by  the  fervid  zeal  of  John  Knox, 
and  his  Ih'otestant  supporters.  No  circumstances  could  be  less  favourable  than  those  of  the 
(Jueen  at  such  a time.  Her  education  had  made  her  a decided  Catholic,  and  her  manners  had 
been  acquired  at  the  Court  of  France.  Her  creed  and  her  so  called  » French  gaiety*  — were 
detested  by  many  leading  men  among  her  subjects,  and  she  found  herself  almost  solitary  in 
her  native  land.  Placed  in  these  circumstances,  she,  in  1565,  married  her  cousin,  Lord 
I )arnley,  an  ambitious  and  dissolute  man,  who  treated  her  cruelly.  James  VI  of  Scotland 
— afterwards  James  I of  England  — was  the  offspring  of  this  unhappy  marriage.  The  year 
of  his  birth,  1566,  was  also  the  year  when  Darnley  sent  assassins  to  murder  in  the  Queen’s 
presence,  a harmless,  Italian  lute-player,  named  Rizzio,  who  sometimes  played  for  her  recreation. 
This  crime  was  soon  followed  by  another  one  that  still  remains  partly  hidden  in  mystery, 
and  casts  a cloud  over  Mary’s  reputation.  She  had  already  shown  a i)artiality  for  Earl  Bothwell, 
when  the  violent  death  of  Darnley  took  place.  He  was  destroyed  by  an  explosion  of  gun- 
])owder,  and  Bothwell  was  generally  regarded  as  the  murderer.  Vet  he  still  enjoyed  the 

confidence  of  the  Queen ; it  was  believed,  therefore,  that  she  had  been  his  accomplice , and 

when  she  married  him,  a storm  of  indignation  arose  in  Scotland.  In  1567,  Lord  .Murray, 
her  natural  brother,  compelled  her  to  abdicate , in  favour  of  her  only  son,  and  she  was 
imj)risoned  in  the  Castle  of  Lochleven,  whence  she  was  liberated  by  Lord  Douglas.  Her 

adherents  now  collected  their  forces;  but  suffered  a decisive  defeat  at  Langside,  13  May  1568. 

•Mary  was  compelled  to  escape  into  I'higland,  and  to  ask  for  royal  |)rotcction ; but  ()ueen 
Elizabeth  demanded,  that  her  cousin  should  first  make  herself  clear  of  blame,  as  regarded  the 
murder  of  Darnley.  Meanwhile,  she  must  remain  a prisoner  in  England. 

Then  followed  removals  to  several  ])laces  of  imprisonment,  and  i)lots  for  the  (Jueen’s 
escape  were  contrived  by  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  Babington,  and  others,  aided  by  some  foreign 
courts;  and  lastly  by  a papal  bull  against  Elizabeth,  who  now  wished  to  be  liberated  from  her 
dangerous  prisoner.  Mary,  for  aiding  in  Babington’s  plot,  was  accused  of  high  treason,  and 
(■.ondemned  to  death.  'Fhe  sentence,  confirmed  by  Parliament,  was  signed  by  Elizabeth,  after 
long  hesitation.  On  the  8'*'  of  February,  1587,  the  unhappy  (Juecn  was  beheaded,  in  the 
Castle  of  Fothcringhay.  Her  courage  and  her  religious  resignation  were  jireserved  in  her 
latest  moments. 


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Don  juan  d’Anstria,  Spanish  General  of  the  iG’'  Century 

Born  34  February  1547,  died  I October  1578 


John  of  Austria  (commonly  called  Don  Juan  d’  Austria)  a natural  son  of  the  emperor 
Charles  V,  was  born  at  Regensburg,  on  the  24'*'  of  February  1547.  His  mother,  Barbara 
Blomberg,  was  the  daughter  of  a Regensburg  freeman.  In  retirement  at  a country  place  in 
Spain,  he  was  educated  under  the  care  of  Luis  de  Quijada,  one  of  the  emperor’s  confidential 
friends,  and  was  first  recognized  after  the  decease  of  his  father  who,  in  his  last  will,  had 
named  him  as  a natural  son.  King  Philipp  II  then  invited  him  to  the  Court,  (in  15591  and 
sent  him,  with  the  Infant  Don  Carlos,  to  the  High  School  of  Alcala,  where  he  remained 
until  1564. 

It  was  soon  evident,  that  the  youth,  who  excelled  his  comrades  mostly  in  physical 
exercises,  was  better  qualified  for  a military  career  than  for  the  clerical  life  that  the  King 
had  once  chosen  for  him.  Philip  in  vain  tried  to  subdue  his  brother’s  natural  impetuosity, 
but  meanwhile  was  assured  of  his  loyalty,  and  then  appointed  him  Admiral.  In  this  capacity,  he 
overcame  in  several  battles  the  African  corsairs,  and  so  far  won  the  King’s  confidence  that, 
in  1569,  he  was  made  Commander  in  Chief  of  the  troops  sent  to  (luell  an  insurrection  of  the 
Moors  in  Cranada.  Here,  after  fighting  several  hard  battles,  he  was  victorious,  in  1570,  and 
in  the  following  year  his  reputation  was  confirmed  by  a greater  victory.  The  republic  of 

Venice  had  then  formed  an  alliance  with  Si)ain  and  with  the  Pope,  against  the  'I'urks  under 

the  Sultan  Selim  11;  and  to  Don  Juan  d’Austria  was  given  the  head  command  of  the  allied 
fleets,  while  the  Turkisli  fleet,  superior  in  force,  was  commanded  by  Ali-Pascha.  Dn  the  7'’’ 
of  October,  1571,  a naval  fight  took  ])lace  in  the  bay  Lepanto,  and  a decisive  victory  was 
won  by  the  allies.  It  would  have  been  made  even  more  advantageous  on  their  side,  if  the 
Admiral’s  plan  of  further  action  had  not  been  opposed  by  a Council  of  War.  In  1573  he 
coiKiucrcd  Tunis  and  here,  as  in  the  Morea,  he  wished  to  establish  a kingdom;  but  Philip  II 
o])posed  the  ])lan,  and  did  not  even  make  him  Infant  of  Spain. 

In  1575  the  comiueror  by  land  and  sea  was  made  Covernor  of  all  the  Spanish 

possessions  in  Italy,  and  in  1576  he  was  sent  as  Covernor  to  the  Netherlands,  where  (it  was 
hoped)  his  mild  and  generous  rule  might  win  back  the  loyalty  of  the  disturbed  provinces. 
In  disguise,  he  travelled  trough  France  and  arrived  at  I.u.xemburg,  on  the  4*''  of  November, 
1576.  To  gain  the  confidence  of  the  jjcople,  he  si)ared  no  pains;  he  even  disbanded  his 
S])anish  army  there  stationed;  but  nothing  coming  from  S[)ain  could  be  viewed  without  susi)icion  ; 
no  policy  could  recom  ilc  the  Representative  States,  who,  at  the  end  of  the  year  1577,  formally 
(lejrrrscd  their  Covernor.  lie  mrw  led  his  Si)anish  troo])s  int(r  the  field,  and  gained  a victory 
at  Cemblours,  on  the  31’^  of  January  157H;  but  he  failed  in  an  engagement  near  Mechlin, 
on  the  i’‘C)f  August,  in  tlie  same  year.  .Meanwhile,  France  had  interfered  in  aid  of  the  revolt 
in  the  Netherlands,  and  the  position  of  the  Covernor  was  most  discouraging.  'I'hcre  was  also 
a ])rivate  cause  for  the  depression  to  which  he  yielded.  'I’he  King  had  refused  to  aid  him 
in  a romantic  plan,  for  liberating  .Mary  (Jueen  of  the  Scots,  then  a jjrisoner  in  England,  and 
for  winning  her  as  his  wife.  I'tterly  disa|)i)ointed,  he  pk'.ced  himself  at  the  head  of  an 
insufficient  body  of  troops,  and  retired  to  a fortified  jiosition  near  Namur.  Soon  afterwards, 
he  was  there  seized  with  a disease  like  the  plague,  and  died  on  the  of  October,  1578,  when 
he  was  only  thirty-one  years  old.  His  remains  were  interred  in  the  Escurial. 

The  Victor  of  Lepanto  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  generals  of  his  time.  His 
noble  and  amiable  character  gained  for  him  the  attachment  of  his  soldiers,  and  in  society  his 
youthful  handsomeness  and  chivalrous  address  were  generally  admired. 


8 


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William  I of  Nassau-Orange,  Stadtholdcr  of  the  Netherlanfls, 

1572—1584 

Horn  25  April  1533,  <lic(l  10  July  1584 


\\'illiam  I,  »the  SilcMit«,  Prince  of  Orange,  and  Count  of  Nassau,  was  born  at  the 
Castle  of  Dillenburg,  in  Nassau,  on  tlie  25'’’  of  April  1533.  As  the  oldest  son  of  Count 
William,  the  Fdder,  of  Nassau,  by  his  second  wife,  Juliana  of  Stolberg,  he  inherited,  in  1544, 
on  the  decease  of  Renatus  of  Nassau  (who  died,  leaving  no  children')  the  Principality  of  Orange 
in  Provence.  As  the  favourite  page  of  Charles  V,  he  received  at  Brussels  a Catholic  education. 
In  1544  he  was  made  Commander  of  an  army  sent  against  .Fi'ance.  Afterwards,  Philip  II  of 
Spain  gave  him  a place  in  the  Council  of  State  at  Brussels,  and  made  him  Oovernor  of 
Holland,  Zeeland,  and  Utrecht.  In  this  capacity  William  was  led  to  oppose  more  and  more 
Philip’s  measures  for  the  suppression  of  religious  and  political  freedom,  and  after  the  insurrection 
of  1566,  he  was  energetic  in  his  endeavours  to  restore  peace;  but  while  his  work  of  pacification 
was  succeeding  well,  the  Duke  of  Alba  appeared  with  a Spanish  army  in  the  Netherlands. 
Here  the  (Governor  resigned  his  office,  and  by  his  retirement  to  Dillenburg,  escaped  the  fate 
of  Egmont  and  Hoorn;  but  his  goods  were  confiscated. 

AVilliam,  who  had  long  been  disposed  to  take  the  Protestant  side,  now  openly  avowed 
his  new  faith,  and  again  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  people,  in  their  contest  to  maintain 
their  right  of  self-taxation.  Alba,  by  his  disregard  of  this  right,  had  excited  an  insurrection, 
when  ^\'illiam  raised  against  him  the  party  known  as  the  » water-beggars «,  whose  efforts  were 
victorious.  They  liberated  from  Spanish  rule  both  Holland  and  Zeeland,  and  at  Dortrecht 
(1572)  recognized  the  Stadtholdcr  as  their  only  rightful  and  royal  governor.  His  sul)sequcnt 
victories  won  at  Gertruidenburg  and  Middelburg  (1574J  and  at  Leyden  (where  he  raised  the 
siege)  made  him  more  and  more  powerful;  and  the  general  result  of  his  services  was  seen  in 
the  Utrecht  Union  of  the  2 3 January  1579.  The  five  northern  provinces  — to  which,  rather 
later,  Gberysscl  and  Groningen  were  added  — were  then  united,  by  inseparable  bond;  and 
thus  was  laid  a foundation  for  the  Republic  of  the  Netherlands.  Two  years  later,  the  deposition 
of  i'hilip  II  was  declared;  and  it  was  then  intended  to  confer  on  William  the  hereditary  title 
of  Count  of  the  Netherlands;  but  his  death  prevented  this  promotion.  On  the  lo'*'  of  July, 
1584  he  was  assassinated  at  Delft,  by  a fanatic  named  Balthasar  Gerard. 

William  was  four  times  married.  His  first  wife  was  .Anna,  daughter  of  Maurice  of 
Saxony;  and  his  fourth  wife  was  Louise,  daughter  of  .Admiral  Coligny.  The  first  was  the 
mother  of  Prince  .Maurice,  and  the  fourth  was  the  mother  of  Henry  Frederick  of  Nassau.  Both 
these  sons  were  engaged  in  warfare  against  S])ain. 

'Phe  founder  of  independence  for  the  Netherlands,  was  esteemed  for  his  personal 
traits;  his  energetic  public  life  was  united  with  amiability  at  home,  and  his  love  of  liberty  led 
him  to  make  sacrifices  of  his  own  ease  and  safety.  He  had  a persuasive  power  of  speech, 
but  generally  jmeferred  silence,  and  to  this  last  trait  his  surname  — »the  Silent « — refers. 


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Pasquale  Cicogna,  Doge  of  Venice,  1585 — 1595 


Pasquale  Cicogna  belonged  to  the  younger  aristocracy  of  Venice  ; for  only  two  hundred 
years  before  his  time,  his  ancestor  IMarco  Cicogna,  an  apothecary,  was  raised  to  patrician  rank, 
on  account  of  ser\'ices  to  the  State.  Like  him,  Pasquale  could  look  back  on  a live  made 
honourable  by  patriotic  services.  As  Governor  of  Candia,  he  had  won  distinction  in  war 
against  the  Turks,  and  had  gained  promotion  to  the  rank  of  a Procurator.  At  home  he  was 
renowned  for  wisdom  and  piety.  The  latter,  it  was  believed,  had  once  been  attested  by  a miracle. 
It  was  mainly  to  be  ascribed  to  his  personal  merits  that  he,  a young  patrician  (the  eightyeighth 
on  the  list  of  candidates)  was  elected  Doge,  i8  August,  1585,  when  Vincenzo  hlorosini  was 
a rival  candidate. 

The  policy  of  Venice  at  this  time  was  to  oppose  the  King  of  Sjiain  — then  also  King 
of  Naples,  and  Duke  of  Milan  — by  means  of  a close  alliance  with  France.  Accordingly, 
when  Henry  III,  whom  they  had  su])portcd,  fell  under  the  assassin's  dagger  (1589)  the  Venetians 
were  the  first  to  recognize  Henry  IV  of  Navarre,  as  King  of  F'rance,  and  for  this  service  he 
was  always  thankful. 

The  Imjuisition  was  so  far  offended  by  this  recognition , that  an  attempt  was  made 
to  implicate,  not  only  the  Senate,  but  also  the  aged  and  pious  Doge,  in  the  guilt  of  fiivouring 
heresy;  but  the  proposed  examination  haiipily  failed.  After  a reign  of  ten  years,  Cicogna  died 
at  Venice,  2 Ajiril,  1595. 

The  reign  of  this  doge  is  made  memorable,  chiefly  by  the  tine  architectural  works  of 
the  time;  among  them  the  glorious  Rialto  Pridge,  connecting,  by  the  span  of  a single  arch, 
the  two  sides  of  the  Grand  Canal;  and  next  to  be  named,  the  decorations  of  the  new  Doges’ 
Palace,  the  Library,  and  the  .Mint.  It  was  Cicogna  who,  in  a special  session  of  the  Senate, 
in  1593,  accepted  the  costly  » brevier  Grimani«  — that  wonder  in  the  art  of  miniature-painting. 
It  had  been  beiiueathed  to  his  native  city,  by  a \'enctian  descendant  from  the  first  possessor, 
and  now  was  delivered  to  the  Doge  by  the  Procurator,  Marcantonio  Parbaro. 


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Philip  TT,  King  of  Spain  1556 — 1598 

]5orn  21  May  1527,  died  13  September  1598 


Philip  11,  King  of  Spain,  son  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V,  by  his  wife,  Isabella  of 
Portugal,  was  born  at  Valladolid,  on  the  2 (jf  May  1527.  His  education,  under  clerical 
direction,  was  excellent  but  one-sided,  and  served  to  develope  a character  intolerant  of 
0])position.  W'hcn  only  sixteen  years  old,  he  married  his  first  wife,  Maria  of  Portugal, 
who  died  in  1554.  He  next  married  Queen  Mary  I,  of  England,  who  was  eleven  years 
older  than  himself;  but  he  could  never  win  the  favour  of  her  English  subjects.  In  1555  he 
left  England  under  the  Queen’s  government.  Later  in  the  same  year,  he  gained,  by  the  gift 
of  his  father,  the  Netherlands  and  the  Italian  po.ssessions,  to  which  were  added  in  1556,  Spain 
and  her  colonies.  He  was  now  regarded  as  the  mightiest  ruler  of  his  time,  and  Spain  — still 
making  progress  in  wealth  and  power  — had  able  commanders,  an  incomparable  fleet,  and 
great  commercial  prosperity  — all  doomed  to  decay  in  the  course  of  a few  years. 

Philip’s  policy  was  a result  of  his  absolute  devotion  to  the  Catholic  Church.  He 
would  extend  over  his  whole  possessions  the  unity  of  government  that  had  been  asserted  by 
his  father  in  Spain,  and  would  make  the  Church  dominant  over  all  the  heresies  of  Protestants, 
in  his  own  kingdom,  and  in  foreign  lands.  He  nevertheless  asserted  the  rights  of  his  own 
throne  against  Papal  jurisdiction,  as  in  1557,  when,  by  his  cajjture  of  Rome,  he  induced  the 
Pope  to  rest  content  in  neutrality.  Afterwards,  in  alliance  with  England,  he  prosecuted  the 
war  with  France  which  Charles  V had  left  as  an  inheritance,  and  brought  it  to  an  end  soon 
after  the  victory  of  St.  Quentin,  10  August  1557  (of  which,  however,  he  failed  to  make  a sufficient 
use)  and  another  at  Gravelines,  in  1558;  at  last,  by  the  Peace  of  Cateau-Cambrtfsis,  by  which 
he  gained,  m 1559,  possession  of  several  frontier-places  in  Italy  and  the  Netherlands.  Spain 
had  now  gained  a jjredominant  position,  from  which  she  was  soon  to  fall ; but  some  victories 
served  for  a time  to  delay  the  decline  of  her  power. 

Philijr  by  expulsion  of  many  subjects,  known  as  Moriscos,  or  baptized  Moors,  had 
impelled  them  to  unite  with  the  'I'urks,  in  i)lundcring  the  coasts  of  Italy  and  Spain ; but  their 
naval  ])owcr  was  destroyed  by  the  great  victory  won  by  his  half-brother,  Don  Juan  d’ Austria, 
in  the  battle  off  Lepanto,  1571.  After  the  extinction  of  the  Hurgundian  dynasty  in  Portugal, 
the  throne  was  claimed  by  Philip,  as  the  son  of  the  oldest  sister  of  Emanuel  the  Great,  and 
once  more  Portugal  was  made  a S])anish  ])rovincc.  Put  failure  attended  the  King’s  chief  plan 
— to  make  Catholicism  again  dominant  in  Western  Europe ; es])ecially  in  the  Netherlands, 
where  the  northern  provinces  revolted;  and  in  France  he  failed  when  — in  alliance  with  the 
Guise  party  — he  endeavoured  to  raise  to  the  throne  his  daughter  Clara  Eugenia,  in  opposition 
t(j  the  Huguenot,  Henry  1\’.  Queen  Elizabetli  of  England  aided  the  revolt  in  tlie  Netherlands, 
and  attacked  the  Spanish  colonies  in  America.  In  Ireland  — where  the  Papal  See  had  given 
him  ])ower  — Philij)  excited  an  insurrection,  and  against  England  he  fitted  out,  at  vast  cost, 
in  1588,  the  great  fleet  called  »thc  invincible  Armada«  ; but  it  was  ])artly  destroyed  and  partly 
dis|)ersed  by  the  violent  storm  that  aided  the  English  in  their  defence.  In  revenge,  the  English, 
in  1596,  sunk  a Spanish  fleet  off  Cadiz,  and  destroyed  the  town.  While  Spain’s  naval  power 
was  thus  greatly  lessened,  the  unhap]))'  wuir  with  France  (1585 — 1598)  had  been  most  ilisastrous 
in  its  results  for  Spain.  The  King  did  not  long  survive  the  conclusion  of  this  war.  After 
enduring  severe  suffering,  he  died  at  Madrid,  on  the  13'’'  of  Sej)tember,  1598,  leaving  the 
throne  to  his  incapable  son  and  successor  — I’hilip  III.  'I'he  older  son,  Don  Carlos,  lunl 
died  in  |nison  1568.  Spain  was  left  burdened  with  a debt  of  more  than  a million  ducats. 
.So  raj)id  was  the  »dccline  and  fall*  of  Spain  in  Phili|)’s  reign. 

In  no  small  measure,  the  blame  for  this  rapid  decline  must  be  ascribed  to  Philip’s 
])ersonal  character.  'I'rue;  he  was  energetic,  or  rather  restless,  in  endeavours  to  gain  his  ends; 
but  his  powers  were  not  eipial  to  his  vast  undertakings.  Reserved,  taciturn,  proml,  and 
suspicious — he  trusted  inhis  own  judgment,  and  chose  to  carry  out  his  own  resolutions,  without 
asking  others  for  advice.  In  the  extir|)ation  of  heresies  he  saw  the  only  way  of  ])reserving 
order,  and  no  measures  were  for  him  to(j  severe.  'I'he  Imiuisition,  therefore,  was  maintained 
in  his  reign.  On  the  other  side,  he  was  generous  in  aiding  scholars  and  artists.  In  memory 
of  his  great  victory  at  St.  (Juentin,  he  built  the  sjilendid  Laurentius-monastery  of  the  Escurial. 


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i )^edu>larn,  hrabaiiticr,  Geldrix,  etc.  dux.  Fictpdt  icr.  tiolhindui.  Haunenier,  etc.  comes  .4etatis Jtia  59- 


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Elizabeth,  Ouecn  ef  l{iie>'lan(l  1558  160^^ 

Udiii  17  Si.'i)tcml)cr  1533,  ilicil  3 Apiil  1A03 


Elizabctli,  Queen  of  England,  daughter  of  Henry  VIII  and  his  wife  Anna  Itoleyn 
was  born,  17  September  1533,  at  (Ireenwicli.  During  tlie  time  of  her  early  youtli,  lier  claim 
of  succession  to  tire  tlirone  was  denied  by  Irer  father.  Educated  as  a I’rotestant,  she  had 
many  persecutions  to  suffer  during  tlie  reign  of  her  half-sister,  Mary;  esjrecially  when  accused 
of  being  imirlicated  in  a jrlot  against  the  life  of  the  (lueen,  and  therefore  condcTimed  and 
imirrisoned  in  the  Tower.  Her  own  prudence  on  the  side  of  her  defence  was  then  her 
only  means  of  escape  from  death.  Afterwards,  she  lived  remote  from  the  Court,  and  found 
a safe  shelter  at  Hatfield-House  (Herts.)  until  the  death  of  Queen  Mary,  17  November  1558, 
when  the  will  of  the  Parliament  called  Elizabeth  to  the  throne. 

Her  first  care  was  to  strengthen  her  government  by  surrounding  the  throne  with  the 
leading  men  of  the  Protestant  party,  and  at  their  head  was  placed  as  her  chief  adviser 
William  Cecil,  a man  eminent  for  his  talents  and  his  energetic  character.  So  aided  by  her 
own  chosen  advisers,  the  Queen  carried  out  successfully  her  own  plans:  chiefly  to  complete 
the  reformation,  and  so  to  establish  by  Parliament,  as  national  and  made  subject  to  her 
supremacy,  the  Church  called  the  Anglican,  or  Episcopal  Church.  Next  by  a firm  foreign  policy, 
ever  conscious  of  an  ultimate  purpose,  she  laid  the  foundation  of  England’s  greatness  and 
importance.  At  first,  the  war  with  France,  in  which  England  had  been  involved  by  Spain, 
was  ended  by  the  Peace  of  Cateau-Cambresis,  in  1559.  But  when  P'rancis  II,  husband  of 
Mary,  queen  of  the  Scots,  in  opposition  to  the  terms  of  that  Peace,  assumed  for  himself  the 
title  of  king  of  England,  conflicts  with  Scotland  began,  and  these  were  not  ended  by  the 
death  of  Francis,  which  soon  followed.  His  widow  Mary  now  would  unite  the  whole  of 
Great  Britain,  as  under  her  own  royal  authority,  and  so  would  restore  Catholicism.  The 
defeat  of  her  party  in  Scotland  compelled  Mary,  as  a fugitive,  to  ask  for  protection  by 
Elizabeth,  and  she  was  indeed  protected,  but  as  the  prisoner  of  the  English  Queen.  Then 
followed  the  conspiracies  concerted  by  her  adherents  for  Mary’s  liberation ; but  the  end  of 
all  these  attempts  was  that  the  Queen  of  the  Scots  was  executed,  8 February  1587. 

Elizabeth  cannot  be  absolved  from  the  guilt  of  participation  in  the  perpetration  of 
that  murder,  though  the  principal  share  in  the  crime  must  be  ascribed  to  the  Parliament, 
who  regarded  the  execution  of  Mary  as  an  act  demanded  for  the  sake  of  national  peace. 
'I'hus,  by  the  death  of  Mary,  a heavy  blow  and  discouragement  was  inflicted  on  the  Catholic 
interest.  The  Pope  no  longer  delayed  to  issue  a ban  of  excommunication  against  Pdizabeth; 
and  Philip  II  of  Spain  determined  to  collect  and  send  forth  a large  naval  expedition  for  the 
conquest  of  Great  Britain.  He  had  previously  been  provoked  by  the  Queen.  She  had  aided 
the  men  of  the  Netherlands,  in  their  revolt  against  Spain,  and  had  allowed  her  bold  admiral, 
Francis  Drake,  to  devastate  the  coasts  of  Peru;  and,  in  1586,  to  sink  a targe  fleet  of  Spanish 
transports  in  the  harbour  of  Cadiz.  Later,  when  the  mighty  Spanish  Armada  entered  the 
Channel  (^1588),  Elizabeth,  who  had  already  expended  much  money  for  the  defence  of  her 
coasts,  could  send  against  Spain  but  a small  fleet.  This  however  was  so  well  commanded, 
that  it  was  strong  enough  to  destroy  almost  utterly  what  remained  of  the  Armada,  when 
first  it  had  been  devastated  and  scattered  by  exi)osure  to  a most  violent  storm.  'Phis  was 
one  of  the  heaviest  blows  that  could  be  inflicted  on  the  power  of  Spain,  whose  naval  predo- 
minance was  henceforth  transferred  to  England.  Elizabeth  ( ontinued  her  warfare  against  Spain 
to  the  death  of  Philip  11  in  1598.  She  suj)ported  Henry  IV'  of  Navarre,  when  he  had  asceiuled 
the  throne  of  France  (in  1589)  and  was  engaged  in  his  contlict  with  the  Catholic  League. 
Near  the  dose  of  her  reign,  Ireland  — but  loosely  hitherto  united  to  England  — was  made 
dependent  as  an  English  Province.  The  material  and  commercial  wealth  of  England  was  greatly 
augmented;  especially  maritime  foreign  trade  was  carefully  jirotectcd , the  foundations  of  our 
Indian  colonies  were  laid;  and  agriculture,  industry  and  finance  were  made  iirosiicrous  by 
improved  regulations. 

Elizabeth  had  never  been  able  to  decide  on  ttiking  a husband , and  remained  un- 
married to  the  end.  Philipp  11,  who  had  been  one  of  her  suitors,  was  hated  as  being 
a ,, fanatic  Catholic."  It  was  lua'  jiride  to  die  with  the  title  of  ,,the  V'irgin  (^ueen“,  though 
her  life  could  not  be  fairly  represented  as  without  a Haw.  The  carls  Leicester  and  Essex 
were  her  acknowledged  favourites.  The  latter,  charged  as  an  accomplice  in  the  insurrection 
of  1601,  was  at  last  executed,  after  some  royal  delay;  and  the  ipieen’s  subsecpient  depression 
was  extreme.  She  lingered  on,  rather  than  lived,  in  deep  melancholy  and  utterly  joyless, 
until  3 April  1603,  when  she  died. 

lilizabeth  jjossessed  de|)th  of  understanding;  and  took  care  to  surround  herself  with 
able  councillors,  though  she  did  not  always  respect  the  will  of  her  Parliament.  As  an  able 
(picen,  ruling  in  an  age  marked  by  an  extraordinary  development  of  intellect,  she  was 
suitably  accomplished,  spoke  P'rench  and  Italian,  and  was  passionately  fond  of  dancing.  On 
the  whole,  Elizabeth  must  be  esteemed  as  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  [)opular  of  England’s 
rulers.  The  foundations  of  England’s  greatness  were  laid  in  her  reign. 


ELISABET  D GANGLIAEjFRANCIAE,fIIBER:iVIAE,ET  VERGINIAE  UEGIKA, 

FlDEl  CHRISTIANAS  PRDPVGNATRIX  A.CERR1MA.NVNCIN  DNOREqyiESCENS  . 

^ '^jtgmu  03  ^ens,  £uMt  tkri^  , , r~0»^  T^SewmmaiGii'^i^/pa  st^ieriet^ra  toilaC, 

( s$ipxt  jemBt  ^ces  y — 


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Henry  IV,  King  of  France,  1589-  1610 

Born  4 December  1553,  died  14  May  1610 


His  amiable  and  chilvali'ous  nature,  his  romantic  adventures,  and  his  tragical  end, 
have  made  Henry  IV,  one  of  the  favourite  characters  described  in  history.  He  was  the  third 
son  of  Antony  of  Bourbon,  by  his  wife  Johanna  of  Albret,  and  was  born  on  the  4*’’  of  December, 
1553.  His  mother,  heiress  of  Navarre  and  Bearn,  was  a woman  of  heroic  courage,  and  remarkable 
cheerfulness  — qualities  that  Henry  surely  inherited.  As  his  father  died  in  1562,  the  early 
training  given  to  the  youth  was  left  to  his  mother’s  care,  and  was  well  suited  to  form  a 
character  of  the  heroic  type.  Before  he  was  twenty  years  old,  his  position  as  a leading  man 
on  the  Protestant  side,  had  attracted  the  attention  of  the  French  Court,  where  a plot  was  laid, 
to  withdraw  him  from  Huguenot  influence,  by  means  of  a maiTiage  with  Margaret  of  Valois 
(distinct  from  the  older  Princess  having  the  same  name).  His  mother  refused  her  consent,  but 
accepted  an  invitation  to  the  Court,  where  she  died  suddenly,  9 June,  1572  — as  was  then 
suspected,  by  wearing  poisoned  gloves,  given  to  her  by  the  Queen-Mother,  Catherine  de’  Medici. 
.Soon  aftenvards,  on  the  iS'*'  of  August,  the  marriage  took  place,  and  was  followed  on  the 
24'^,  by  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew;  hence  the  terrible  name  of  »the  bloody  marriage*, 
d'he  leaders  of  the  Guise  party  — called  the  »Holy  League*  — who  would  gain  control  over 
the  throne,  threatened  Henry’s  life,  and  induced  the  Pope,  Se.xtus  V,  to  pronounce  against  him 
a ban  of  excommunication.  On  the  other  side,  Henry,  acting  with  more  vigour,  as  the  leader 
of  the  Huguenots,  gained  a victory  over  the  Court  Party  — especially  in  the  battle  of  Courtras 
— and  soon  afterwards,  in  alliance  with  his  uncle,  Henry  III,  he  marched  on  to  besiege  Paris, 
then  held  by  the  Guise  party.  On  the  2"'*  of  August,  1589,  King  Henry  III  was  assassinated 
by  Jacques  Clement,  a Dominican  monk ; but  had  time  before  his  death,  to  declare,  that  his 
true  successor  to  the  throne  was  Henry  of  Navarre,  ’ who  thereupon  claimed  the  throne  ot 
France.  But  continuous  warfare  with  the  Catholic  League  followed,  and  Henry  failed  to  win  the 
confidence  of  the  clergy  and  the  nobility,  until  he  accepted,  on  the  25*’’  of  July,  i593>  1''“’ 
advice  of  the  Minister  de  Rosny  (later  Duke  of  Sully)  and  made  himself  a Catholic.  Imme- 
diately, and  without  the  drawing  of  a sword,  the  gates  of  Paris  were  opened  to  receive  him. 
On  this  occasion  it  was  reported  that  he  said;  — d’aris  vaut  bien  une  messe.« 

'I’hc  indignation  now  awakened  among  the  Huguenots  was,  in  1598,  appeased  by  his 
celebrated  »Fdict  of  Nantes",  (afterwards  so  cruelly  revoked  by  Louis  XI\",  in  1685). 

In  his  domestic  life,  Ilenry  had  not  an  unbroken  peace.  He  divorced  his  first  wite, 
Margaret  of  X’alois,  whose  conduct  had  been  not  only  fri\oloiis  but  unfaithful.  In  fairness  it 
must  be  owned,  that  Henry  himself  was  not  guiltless  of  inconstancy.  The  most  celebrated  of 
his  mistresses  was  the  Countess  d'Kstrees  — known  as  the  /belle  Gabrielle*,  of  his  songs  — 
and  he  would  have  married  her,  and  raised  her  to  the  throne,  had  he  not  been  prevented  by 
her  tragic  fate.  She  was  i)oisoncd,  by  means  of  an  orange  given  to  her.  'I'hc  King’s  amours 
were  not  so  ended.  He  was  especially  attracted  by  the  beauty  of  llenriette  d’Fntragues;  but 
--  yielding  to  advice  given  by  the  Pope,  Clemens  VI II  ■ — he  married  in  1600  Marie  de’ 
Medici,  by  whom  he  had  several  children.  Her  ambition  and  irritable  temper  often  annoyed 
him,  though  he  was  kind  toward  his  family,  as  was  shown  when  a Spanish  ambassador  suprised 
the  King  |)laying  with  the  little  princes  and,  like  a patient  horse,  letting  them  ride  on  his 
back.  A ])aternal  feeling  for  the  peojile  perhaps  the  King’s  best  trait  — was  expressed  in 
his  wish,  that  every  one  /tnight  have  a fowl  for  his  Sunday’s  dinner  . 

Under  the  wise  and  generous  rule  of  Ilenry  IN’,  France  pros])cred  at  home  and 
abrcKid ; yet  he  fell  by  the  dagger  of  an  assassin.  On  the  14'*'  of  May,  1610,  he  was  stabbed 
to  the  heart  by  a fanatic  named  Ravaillac. 


James  I,  King  of  England  1603  1625 

Born  19  June  1566,  died  8 A|)ril  1625 


James  I was  born  in  Edinburgh,  19  June  1566,  as  the  son  of  Henry  Darnley  and 
Mary  Stuart.  After  his  mother’s  abdication,  he  was,  in  1567,  crowned  King  of  Scotland  as 
James  VI,  and  in  1576  he  nominally  assumed  the  government,  which  in  fact  was  entrusted 
to  the  care  of  the  earls  Lennox  and  Murray.  His  education  was  controlled  by  fanatic  divines, 
who  upheld  the  stern  morals  of  Calvinism  in  their  rules  of  Church  discipline,  and  were  parti- 
zans  of  an  extreme  democracy  in  the  domain  of  politics.  These  tutors  made  of  the  young 
king  a pedantic  theologian;  buf  they  could  not  extinguish  his  belief  in  the  »divine  right  of 
kings*.  It  so  happened,  therefore,  that  as,  soon  as  he  attained  his  majority  and  was  inde- 
pendent in  his  management  of  state  affairs , he  was  continually  involved  in  disputes  with  the 
general  synod  of  a realm  that  was  in  fact  controlled  by  the  authority  of  the  Church.  After 
the  decease  of  queen  Elizabeth,  in  1603,  James  became  King  ot  England  by  hereditary  right 
His  accession  to  the  English  throne  was  hailed  with  rejoicing  by  the  peoi)le,  who  under  his 
government  generally  expected  a removal  of  all  abuses  and  burdens,  especially  those  which 
in  religious  matters  had  been  made  intolerable,  during  the  later  years  of  the  preceding  reign. 
Despite,  however,  the  promises  made  in  his  royal  proclamations,  the  king  utterly  failed  to 
fultil  the  expectations  of  the  people. 

Soon  after  his  accession,  he  had  to  quell  a conspiracy  led  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  (a 
favourite  in  the  court  of  Queen  Elizabeth).  'I'his  plot  was  one  that  might  be  suppressed  in  its 
first  stage,  but  one  more  formidable  was  next  detected.  James  himself  had  some  prejudice  in 
favour  of  Roman  dogmas  and  some  ritualistic  forms  of  the  Catholic  Church;  yet  he  i)ersecuted 
the  Catholics,  and  with  such  cruelties  that  a conspiracy  was  formed  by  several  of  their  party, 
whose  object  was  to  destroy  all  the  assembled  members  of  Parliament,  by  means  of  an  ex- 
plosion of  gunpowder,  1605.  'I'he  jdot  was  detected,  and  the  chief  leaders  were  arrested  and 
executed:  among  them  Digby,  Cuy  Eawkes  and  eight  others.  Next  followed  a series  of  coer- 
cive laws  or  prohibitions,  so  severe,  that  the  very  existence  of  Catholicism  was  made  (piestio- 
nable.  A new  oath  of  allegiance  was  now  issued , by  which  every  subscriber  was  made  to 
l)romise,  that  he  would  recognize  no  pai)al  claim  whatever  to  any  supremacy  in  secular  aft'airs. 

The  king  was,  moreover,  almost  continually  engaged  in  strife  witli  his  own  Par- 
liament ; for  he  asserted  that  even  its  existence  was  dci)endcnt  on  his  own  divine  right,  while 
for  su])plies  of  money  he  confessed  his  dei)emlence  on  the  grants  made  by  his  subjects  in 
Parliament. 

In  his  foreign  policy  also,  the  king  betrayed  a want  of  firm  principles  and  well- 
directed  plans.  In  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  Elizabeth  with  the  Palatinate  Prince  Frederick  (later 
known  as  the  W’inter-king*)  James  acted  in  concert  with  ])opular  wishes,  and  so  found 
himself  comj)elled,  by  the  'I'hirty  \'ears’  War*  to  act  in  support  of  the  Protestant  Princes; 
but  he  had  at  the  same  time  placed  himself  on  the  opposite  side ; first  by  the  intended,  though 
unfulfilled,  marriage  of  his  son  Charles  with  the  Infantin  of  Si)ain ; then  by  a promise  that 
the  Prince  should  marry  the  catholic  jirincess,  Henrietta  of  Bourbon. 

For  a i)sychologist,  it  is  difficult  to  trace  all  the  mazy  ways  of  a ( haracter  as  singular 
as  that  of  James  I.  The  popular  good  sense  of  his  own  subjects  has  justly  pronounced,  as  a 
verdict  in  his  case : 

^Elizabeth  was  a King;  our  James  is  a (,)uecni>. 


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George  Villiers,  Duke  of  Buekingliam,  Minister  of  James  1 and 

Charles  1 of  England 

Eorn  20  August  1592,  died  23  August  1628 


Ocorge  Villiers,  younger  son  of  Sir  Oeorge  Villiers  was  born  20  August  1592,  at 
the  family  mansion,  Itrookesby  in  Leicestershire.  After  his  father’s  early  decease,  and  guided 
by  the  wishes  of  his  ambitious  mother.  Alary  (nee  Heaumont)  he  spent  three  years  in  Paris, 
in  order  to  make  himself  an  accom])lishcd  Cavalier,  and  then  entered  the  University  ot  Cam- 
bridge. Uy  his  handsome  personal  traits  and  his  clever  address,  he  soon  attracted  the 
notice  of  King  James  1,  who  in  1515  invited  him  to  the  Court  and  appointed  him  as  royal 

butler.  After  a short  time  of  service,  Villiers  was  knighted;  then  took  the  ]dace  of  the  King’s 

favourite,  Robert  Carr,  and  rose  rapidly  from  step  to  step,  until  the  King  made  him,  in  1623, 

1 )uke  of  Buckingham.  He  was  now  on  all  sides  the  object  of  gross  adulation,  and  even  the 

celebrated  Lord  Bacon  crept  spaniel-like  into  his  presence,  to  solicit  his  patronage.  Of  course, 
the  favourite  made  so  powerful  bestowed  places  and  offices  of  State  on  his  friends  and  relatives, 
or  exchanged  them  for  money.  The  King  himself  was  go\'erned  by  Buckingham,  and 
Charles  I the  royal  heir,  was  made  to  feel  that  he  was  dependent  on  the  favour  of  his  father’s 
chief  minister. 

In  his  foreign  policy  Buckingham  at  first  supported  the  King’s  son-in-law,  the  Prince 
Elector,  Frederick  V of  the  Palatinate,  then  engaged  in  conflict  with  the  Catholic  powers; 

but  after  1620,  the  minister  severed  his  policy  from  that  of  the  war  party,  and  sought  the 

friendship  of  Si)ain,  in  aid  of  Frederick’s  rehabilitation.  By  the  marriage  of  Charles,  Prince  of 

Wales  with  a Catholic  princess  it  was  hoped  that  the  end  would  be  soonest  attained,  and 

therefore  Buckingham,  in  1623,  went  with  the  Prince  to  Madrid;  but  here  he  met  with 

unexpected  o])position,  and  returned  to  T>ondon,  greatly  annoyed  by  the  failure  of  his  tedious 
negociations.  Henceforth,  he  was  the  bitter  enemy  of  Spain.  The  British  Parliament  was 

delighted  by  his  failure,  and  soon  granted  liberal  supplies  for  a war  against  Spain.  Put  before 
the  i)rojected  war  began.  King  James  died,  1625. 

'I'he  accession  of  Charles  I made  however  no  change  in  Buckingham’s  jiosition.  On 
the  9*’’  of  May,  1625,  he  was  made  a member  of  the  Committee  ai)pointed  by  the  Privy 
Council  for  the  regulation  of  foreign  affairs,  and  here  he  soon  made  himself  premier  and 
leader.  After  his  return  from  Madrid,  he  sought  an  alliance  with  Prance,  and  this  was  obtainetl 
and  confirmed  by  the  marriage  of  Charles  I with  the  Prench  Princess  Maria  Henrietta.  The  next 
aim  of  the  favourite  was  to  make  the  Huguenots  in  Prance  serviceable  for  his  purposes; 

but  in  this  he  was  defeated  by  the  able  policy  of  Richelieu,  and  in  Plngland  the  Parliament 
earnestly  jirotested  against  the  designs  of  Buckingham.  To  win  back  the  favour  of  the  people, 
he  now  projected  an  expeditiem  against  Cadiz,  but  in  this  he  failed  once  more;  next  his 

alliance  with  Prance  was  more  and  more  loosened,  and  at  last  was  dissolved.  Meanwhile,  at 
home  his  uipiopularity  was  increasing,  and  the  I’arliament  declared  that  his  arbitrary  measures 
had  deserved  impeachment.  Again  he  had  recourse  to  propos.il  of  warfare,  in  order  to  avert 
the  storm  rising  against  him,  and  now  the  Huguenots  were  to  be  aided  by  his  interference. 
He  assumed  the  command  of  a considerable  lleet,  but  failed  in  attempting  a conipiest  of  the 
island  Re,  and  again  in  trying  to  raise  the  siege  of  l-a  Rochelle.  In  later  attempts  to  gain 
supplies  for  warfare,  he  was  aided  by  the  King,  who  had  granted  the  Parliament's  »Petition 
of  Rights«.  On  the  23'’‘^  of  August,  i(j28,  Buckingham  was  assassinated  by  Lieutenant  Penton, 
an  officer  who  had  been  degraded  in  rank.  The  grief  of  the  King,  for  the  loss  of  his  minister, 
was  hardly  greater  than  the  relief  from  ojiprcssion  then  felt  by  his  subjects. 

With  all  these  shades  in  his  character,  Buckingham  hatl  some  meritorious  traits.  As 
Lord  lligh  Admiral  he  collected  a strong  navy,  and  as  Chancellor  of  the  University  at  Cam- 
bridge (1626J  he  exercised  a diligent  care  for  its  welfare.  He  gave  some  aid  to  scholars 
and  artists,  collected  a large  gallery  of  paintings,  and  was  a patron  of  the  drama. 


5 


Gustaviis  II  Adolphus,  King  of  Sweden,  1611-1632 

Born  9 December  1594,  died  16  November  1632 


Gustavus  II,  Adolphus,  son  of  Charles  IX,  and  grandson  of  Gustavus  I (Vasa)  was 
born  at  Stockholm,  9 December,  1594.  A careful  education  served  to  develope  his  superior, 
natural  endowments,  and  he  received  from  his  father  an  especial  training  in  political  affairs. 
Sweden  was  involved  in  difficulties  when  he  came  to  the  throne,  in  1 6 1 1 . He  was  only 
seventeen  years  old;  but  his  genial  temper  and  firm  will  won  popular  favour.  His  first  aim 
was  to  end  the  threefold  warfare  in  which  his  land  was  engaged  when  his  father  died.  'I'lirough 
England’s  mediation,  he  brought  to  an  end  the  war  against  Denmark  (1613')  then  turned  his 
arms  against  Russia,  and  gained  advantages  by  the  Peace  of  Stolbowa  1617)  and  in  1621 
his  campaign  against  the  Poles,  began  a war  that,  with  some  interruptions,  lasted  for  nine 
years.  In  the  course  of  this  time,  he  made  important  conquests  in  Livonia,  Kurland,  and  in 
Polish-Prussia,  and  in  1629  he  compelled  King  Sigismund  of  Poland  to  leave  his  victor  possessor 
of  the  conquered  territory  in  Polish-Prussia. 

\Vhile  engaged  in  this  long  warfare,  Gustavus  Adolphus  had  paid  attention  to  the  events 
of  the  'I'hirty  Years’  War,  and  had  received  from  German  Princes  solicitations  for  military  aid. 
Put  he  had  decided,  that  first  his  warfare  with  Poland  must  be  ended,  before  he  could  move 
efficiently  for  the  aid  of  I’rotestantism  now  in  great  peril.  Accordingly,  he  landed  on  the 
island  Usedom,  on  the  26*''  of  June,  1630,  with  an  army  of  13,000  men,  and  despite  difficulties 
occasioned  by  the  mistrust  and  indecision  of  German  Princes,  he  gained  on  all  sides  victories 
over  the  Imjrerial  forces,  compelled  the  Electors  of  Prandenburg  and  Saxony  to  their  alliance 
with  his  own  army,  defeated  'I'illy  at  Preitenteld,  and  marched  as  a Con([ueror  through  the 
.Main  and  Rhine  districts.  To  rescue  his  allies,  threatened  by  Wallenstein,  he  returned  to 
Saxony.  In  the  sanguinary  battle  of  Etitzen,  while  he  was  engaged  in  a hand-to-hand  fight 
with  the  enemy’s  cuirassirs,  he  fell,  fatally  wounded,  on  the  16'’’  of  November,  1632. 

Gustavus  Adolphus  was  a man  of  stately  build,  with  blond  hair,  and  large,  sparkling 
eyes.  lie  had  a clear,  penetrating  understanding,  and  a commanding  presence,  but  was  friendly 
and  affable.  Strict  in  his  own  life,  and  a foe  to  all  self-indulgence,  he  afforded  by  his  own 
conduct  proof  of  true  piety,  united  with  gentle  and  Christian  virtues.  His  worth  as  a General 
was  fairly  estimated  by  Na|)olcon  I,  who  classed  him  with  »thc  eight  military  heroes  of  the 
w<ul(l«.  'I’he  troojrs  ruled  by  his  strict  discijiline  were  devoted  to  him  and  confided  in  him; 
for  he  knew  how  to  reward  them,  and  willingly  endured  the  hardships  they  had  to  bear.  His 
services  in  Germany  won  fur  Sweden  mastery  in  the  Paltic,  and  a place  among  the  great  [rowers. 


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Maria  of  Medici,  Queen  of  France,  1600 — 1642 

Born  26  April  1573,  died  3 July  1642 


Maria  of  Medici,  daughter  of  Duke  Francis  II  of  Tuscany,  and  Johanna  of  Austria, 
was  born  on  the  26'^  of  April  1573.  When  nearly  twenty-seven  years  old,  she  married 
Henry  IV  of  France.  Her  personal  beauty  was  remarkable , but  could  not  make  endurable 
the  despotic  traits  of  her  natural  character.  After  the  assassination  of  her  husband , she 
immediately,  and  with  a strong  hand,  seized  the  reins  of  government,  and  held  them  during  the 
minority  of  her  son,  Louis  XIII.  Acting  in  concert  with  her  chief  favourite,  Concini,  she 
made  her  Court  notorious  for  its  extravagant  expenditure  and,  to  win  popularity,  displayed  a 
false  generosity,  while  the  financial  condition  of  the  land  was  growing  worse  and  worse. 

When  her  son  had  attained  his  majority,  the  tyrannous  mother  still  ruled,  until  16  ig, 
when  she  was,  for  a short  time,  banished  from  the  Court  by  Albert  de  Luyncs,  who  was 
now  the  King’s  favourite.  He  died  in  1621;  and  the  cpieen-mother  returned,  to  rule  over 
her  royal  but  feeble  son.  In  1624,  she  invited  to  her  Court  Cardinal  Richelieu,  and  gave 
him  a place  in  her  Council  of  State  — an  appointment  fatal  to  her  own  interest ! The  great 
statesman,  whom  she  had  called  to  aid  her,  de])rived  her  of  all  her  inthience  over  the 
government,  and  banished  her  from  the  Court.  Subsctiuently  she  escai)ed  into  Relgium;  and 
then  to  Cologne,  where  — poor  and  deserted  — she  died,  on  the  third  of  July,  1642. 


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Cardinal  Armand  Jean  Duplcssis,  Duk'c  of  Richelieu, 

k'rcnch  Statesman 

lUii  n 5 Scptoinl)C'r  1585,  <lio(l  .)  I )cccinl)er  i6.)2 


Armand  Jean  I)u])lcssis,  duke  of  Riehelicu,  l)C)rn  in  I’aris,  5 Scplcinbcr  r585,  belonged 
to  one  of  the  oldest  noble  families  in  J’oitou.  Ilis  first  intention  — to  clioose  a military 
career  — was  changed  when  his  younger  brotlier  retired  into  a convent,  and  so  renounced 
his  possession  of  the  bishojiric  of  lai(;on.  'I'o  secure  this,  as  the  jiroperty  of  the  family,  the 
elder  brother,  Armand  jean,  took  holy  orders,  and  in  1614  the  clergy  of  Poitou  sent  him 
as  their  dejnity  to  the  assembly  of  the  States  General  in  Paris.  Here  by  his  character  and 
address,  he  so  far  made  himself  beloved  at  Court,  that  the  Queen  Mother,  Maria  de’  Medici, 
ajipointcd  him  Almoner,  and  at  the  same  time  her  favourite,  Concini,  made  him  Secretary  of 
State.  After  the  fall  of  Concini,  1617,  Richelieu  was  compelled  to  leave  the  Court;  but  was 
recalled  in  1619,  in  order  that  he  might  act  as  a mediator  between  the  party  of  the  Queen 
Mother  and  that  of  the  young  king,  Louis  XIII.  The  statesman’s  success  was  now  made  sure ; 
in  1622  he  received  the  cardinal’s  hat,  and  two  years  later  his  place  in  the  State-Council,  of 
which  he  soon  made  himself  the  premier. 

For  eighteen  years  Richelieu,  though  threatened  by  many  and  powerful  enemies,  who 
made  all  jmssible  efforts  to  cause  his  ruin,  maintained  his  high  position,  and  ruled  over 
the  destinies  of  France.  His  work  was  made  all  the  more  difficult,  as  the  king  rewarded  him 
with  but  little  confidence  — to  say  nothing  of  any  true  attachment.  The  Cardinal , never- 
theless, succeeded  in  making  himself  so  far  indispensable,  that  the  Monarch  was  in  fact  ever 
dependent  on  his  adviser;  and  this  too  while  the  Queen  Mother  was  endeavouring  to  liberate 
her  son  from  the  bonds  by  which  he  was  held.  In  1630  she  was  compelled  to  quit  the  field, 
and  the  leaders  of  her  party  were  sent  to  the  scaffold.  In  vain  the  king’s  brother,  the  Huke 
Caston  of  Qrleans,  interfered  and,  marching  with  an  army  from  the  Netherlands,  made  an  in- 
vasion of  P’rance.  The  results  were  only,  that  a slaughter  of  his  supporters  followed,  and  his 
father-in-law,  the  P)uke  of  Loraine,  forfeited  his  dukedom. 

While  Richelieu  knew  so  well  how  to  meet  and  frustrate  the  conspiracies  of  the 
nobility,  he  had,  at  the  same  time,  to  contend  against  the  Huguenots,  and  to  destroy  their 

political  and  »particular«  position,  which  had  made  them  »a  State  within  the  State«.  Henry  IV 

had  yielded  to  them  certain  garrisons,  now  claimed  as  their  own,  and  had  given  to  them 
privileges  bj’  which  their  separation  from  the  State  was  confirmed  to  a large  extent. 

To  attack  their  position,  Richelieu,  in  1627,  obtained  from  an  assembly  of  Notables 
supplies  enabling  him  to  prepare  and  send  against  the  Huguenots  an  army  and  a fleet.  He 
then  laid  siege  to  La  Rochelle,  the  strongest  fortress  of  the  Protestants , attacking  it  at  once 
by  sea  and  by  land.  'Phe  garrison,  after  being  reduced  to  famine,  was  compelled  to  surrender, 

and  so  was  destroyed  the  power  of  the  Huguenots,  who  still  were  allowed  to  retain  their  free- 

dom in  religious  belief  and  in  forms  of  worshij). 

While  Richelieu  at  home  carried  out  his  measures  for  destroying  the  power  of  an 
egoistic  nobility,  and  for  concentrating  in  the  monarchy  all  political  i)owcr,  his  foreign  policy 
was  directed  mainly  to  humiliate  the  House  of  Hapsburg  in  Austria  and  Si)ain,  and  to  make 
France  dominant  over  all  the  States  of  Piurope.  'Phe  Mantuan  war  of  succession , in  1629, 
afforded  an  occasion  for  his  interference  in  favour  of  a French  vassal,  the  Duke  of  Nevers. 
'Phe  Cardinal,  assuming  arms  in  his  own  j)erson,  now  led  an  army  into  Italy,  1630,  and  by 
his  con(juest  of  I’ignerol  compelled  .Austria  to  surrender  Mantua  to  Nevers,  and  to  withdraw 
from  the  district  of  Veltlin.  His  interference  in  the  'Phirty  Years’  War  led  to  more  impor- 
tant results , by  which  the  possessions  and  the  i)ower  of  France  were  greatly  enlarged.  His 
military  resources  were  then  not  sufficient  for  meeting  .Austria  in  open  warfare.  I le  therefore 
acted  secretely,  in  alliance  with  her  enemies,  by  granting  them  supplies  of  money.  After- 
wards, when  his  foes  at  home  were  subdued,  he  acted  more  directly  and  openly,  began  a war 
with  S])ain,  in  order  to  gain  the  Netherlands,  and  aided  the  insurrection  in  Catalonia,  and  the 
rising  of  the  House  of  Hraganza  in  Portugal.  In  Cermany  he  sui)ported  Duke  Rernhard  ol 
Saxe- Weimar,  with  the  view  that  his  military  services  might  be  made  available  for  the  con- 
<piest  of  Alsace.  When  Pernhard  died  suddenly,  1639  (as  reported,  by  means  of  poison) 
Richelieu  not  only  took  possession  of  the  duke’s  compiests,  but  also,  by  means  of  bribery, 
gained  the  army  once  led  by  Hernhard.  'Phe  Cardinal’s  later  time  was  disturbed  by  the 
insurrection  of  Cimj-Mars,  though  this,  like  ])receding  risings  against  him,  was  suppressed. 

Richelieu  was  the  founder  of  the  jxjwer  of  France.  Without  his  work,  the  absolute 
monarchy  of  Louis  XIV  would  have  been  im])ossible.  'Phe  Cardinal  never  convoked  the  States 
Ccneral.  Under  his  rule.  Parliament  was  robbed  of  its  political  rights,  and  though  the  lower 
classes  obtained  legal  advantages,  by  their  emancipation  from  service  to  the  nobility,  this  relief 
was  made  unavailing  by  an  increase  of  taxation.  So  great  was  the  Cardinal’s  fijve  of  dis[)lay, 
that  his  household  exjtenditure  cost  fijrty  million  livres;  but  he  bestowed  a liberal  patronage 
on  arts,  sciences,  and  literature,  and  himself  contribitted  his  » Memoirs*  to  the  literature  of 
his  time.  He  founded  the  French  .Academy,  reformed  the  Sorbonne,  patronizetl  the  drama, 
and  built  the  Palais-Royal.  He  was  an  admirer  of  beauty  in  women,'  but  maiiuained  an  ab- 
solute reserve  respecting  his  own  liaisons. 


4 


UlilUliL 


Louis  XIII,  King  of  France,  i6io  — 1643 

Born  37  September  i6oi,  died  14  May  1643 


Louis  XIII,  King  of  France,  son  of  Henry  IV,  by  his  wife  Maria  de  Medici,  was 
born  at  Fontainebleau,  on  the  27^^  of  September,  1601.  By  right  of  succession  he  came  to 
the  throne,  when  his  father  was  assassinated,  (on  the  14^'' of  May  1610,  ) but  his  mother  then 
assumed  the  reins  of  government.  Louis  — - naturally  weak  and  irresolute  — submitted 
himself  to  her  despotic  rule,  not  only  during  his  minority,  but  also  for  several  years  after- 
wards. In  fact,  she  and  her  favourites  ruled  until  1624,  when  she  invited  Cardinal  Richelieu 
to  her  Court.  Meanwhile  Louis  — whose  majority  had  been  recognized  in  1614  — had 
married,  in  1615,  the  Spanish  Princess,  Anna,  and  in  1617  had  taken  a part  in  the  banishment 
of  his  mother.  She  returned  in.  1621,  invited  Richelieu  to  her  Court  and  after  the  year  1624, 
made  him  her  chief  Minister. 

Henceforth  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII  might  be  called  the  reign  of  Richelieu,  whose 
position  gave  him  opportunities  for  carrying  into  effect  his  own  threefold  policy  — to  humiliate 
the  House  of  Hapsburg;  to  oppose  the  Huguenots;  and  to  destroy  the  aristocracy.  In  the 
winter  of  1624,  a French  army  drove  the  Spaniards  out  of  Veltlin.  Soon  afterwards,  the 
warfare  against  the  Huguenots  — which  had  l)een  apparently  brought  to  a close  by  the  Treaty 
of  Montpellier,  in  1622  — was  resumed.  In  1628  they  surrendered  their  best  fortress,  Rochelle, 
and  lost  their  political  rights,  but  retained  their  religious  freedom,  d'his  war  was  hardly 
ended,  when  the  King  led  across  the  Alps  a strong  army,  to  assert  the  right  of  a French 
vassal  — the  Duke  of  Nevers  — who  claimed  the  duchy  of  Mantua.  When  the  French  had 
gained  some  victories,  the  claim  was  conceded  by  the  'I'reaty  of  Chierasco  (1631)  and  the 
fortresses,  Casale  in  Mantua  and  Pignerol  in  Savoy,  were  retained  by  France. 

All  these  and  other  successes  were  won  by  the  able  policy  of  Richelieu.  In  vain 
his  foes  endeavoured  to  destroy  his  influence.  (laston,  the  King’s  brother,  and  Duke  of 
Orleans  — was  defeated  in  1632.  .Vnothcr  foe  — Charles  of  Lorainc  — lost  his  lands  in 
1633;  indeed  the  whole  nobility  of  France  was  made  subject  to  the  throne;  and  the  throne 
was  made  subject  to  Richelieu.  He  0]>posed  Austria  in  the  Thirty  Years’  War;  and  aided 
the  Netherlands  in  their  revolt  against  Spain.  To  gain  for  France  the  left  hank  of  the  Rhine, 
Richelieu  made  an  alliance  with  Bernhard  of  Sa.xe-Weimar , after  whose  death,  the  lands 
he  had  conquered  were  claimed  by  France.  In  1641  the  whole  County  of  Roussillon  was  ceded 
to  Louis  Xlll.  In  the  midst  of  these  victories,  the  Ring  died  at  St.  CermaiTr  - en  - Layc,  on 
the  14'''  of  May,  1643  — a few  months  after  the  decease  of  Richelieu. 

Louis  Xlll  was  weak,  suspicious  and  irresolute;  but  could  show  courage  in  the  field 
of  battle.  In  his  private  life,  he  was  dull  and  melancholy,  sometimes  morose.  'I'ho  chase 
was  his  chief  recreation,  but  he  had  some  liking  for  music.  His  lonely  hours  were  spent, 
sometimes  in  doing  mechanical  work,  and  sometimes  in  reading  tlevotional  books. 


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Elizabeth  of  Bourbon,  Wife  of  King  Philip  IV  of  Spain, 

1615—1644 

Born  22  November  1602,  died  6 October  1644 


Elizabeth  of  Bourbon,  Queen  of  Spain,  was  born  at  Fontainebleau,  on  the  22'"’  of 
November,  1602.  In  early  childhood  she  was  betrothed  by  her  father,  Henry  IV  of  France, 
to  the  Prince  of  Piedmont.  After  her  father’s  assassination,  her  mother  Maria  de’  Medici, 
annulled  that  betrothal,  and  made  arrangements  for  a twofold  alliance  of  France  and  Spain ; 
first  by  her  daughter’s  marriage  to  Philip  IV  of  Spain,  and  next  by  that  of  the  Infantin  Anna 
Maria  of  Austria  with  Louis  XIII  of  France.  The  former  alliance  was  delayed  for  two  years, 
on  account  of  the  youth  of  the  proposed  husband,  who  was  two  years  younger  than  his  bride. 
On  the  1 8*'’  of  October,  1615,  their  marriage  was  celebrated  with  much  splendour,  in  the 
cathedral  of  Bordeaux.  A brilliant  military  escort  -r—  several  thousands  of  infantry  and  cavalry 
— had  conducted  the  departure  of  the  French  Princess  as  far  as  the  boundary  river,  Bidassoa, 
where  she  was  formally  given  in  exchange  for  the  Spanish  Infantin,  Anna  Maria  of  Austria, 
bethrothed  to  King  Louis  XIII  of  France. 

Elizabeth’s  husband  had  already  confided  to  his  favourite,  Olivarez,  all  the  cares  of 
the  government,  and  lived  only  to  amuse  himself  — a life  that  was  deplored  by  the  young 
and  noble-hearted  Queen,  who  for  him  and  for  Spain,  had  forfeited  all  her  friendships  in 
France,  and  had  made  herself  at  heart  a true  Spaniard.  Bitter  was  her  sorrow  for  the 
unworthy  position  chosen  by  her  husband,  and  for  the  bad  government  now  indicted  on  Spain. 
The  people,  by  their  homage  paid  to  her,  recognized  the  fact,  that  she  was  on  their  side ; 
cs])ecially  in  1640,  when  bad  government  had  led  to  revolt  in  Catalonia  and  in  Portugal.  In 
])romi)t  reply  to  her  appeal  to  the  fidelity  of  the  Castilians,  they  raised  then,  in  the  course  of 
a few  weeks,  an  army  of  50,000  men;  and  the  {,)ueen  was  thus  encouraged  to  dismiss  from 
office  the  absolute  minister,  Olivarez.  In  this  crisis,  Phili])p  IV  was  roused  to  take  a jiersonal 
interest  in  the  war,  and  during  his  absence  from  the  Court,  the  ()ucen  herself  took  charge 
of  the  regency.  But  his  military  energy  was  of  short  duration,  and  another  favourite,  Don 
Luis  de  Haro,  was  soon  ai)j)ointed  to  take  charge  of  the  government.  Soon  after  this  relapse 
on  the  jjart  of  Phili]),  the  (,)ueen  died,  on  the  6‘''  of  October,  1644,  deplored  by  the  i)eople, 
and  even  by  the  King,  who  now  could  appreciate  her  worth,  when  it  was  too  late.  She  left 
two  children ; a son,  1 )on  Carlos,  who  did  not  long  survive  her,  and  a daughter,  Maria  Theresia, 
afterwards  the  wife  of  Louis  XIV'^,  of  France. 

Elizabeth  inherited  some  of  her  father’s  good  (pialities;  but  neither  her  |)ersonal 
beauty,  nor  her  superior  mind  and  soul,  could  avail  to  attach  truly  and  permanently  the  frivolous 
heart  of  her  husband.  She  was  a diligent  patroness  of  literary  and  artistic  culture,  and  especially 
had  delight  in  Spanish  Comedy,  which  in  her  time  attained  its  highest  point  of  e.xccllence. 


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Charles  T,  Kinpr  of  Enp^land,  1625 — 1649 

1)0111  19  November  1600,  died  30  January  1649 


Charles  I,  the  second  son  of  James  I,  became  successor  to  the  throne  by  the  decease 
of  his  elder  brotlier.  At  the  time  of  liis  accession,  1625,  the  position  of  royalty  in  England 
had  already  been  made  perilous;  for  James  I had  liy  his  government  excited  great  discontents 
among  the  people,  which  from  year  to  year  had  been  increased  by  unwise  jiolicy  and  bur- 
densome taxation. 

Charles  I retained  in  office  his  father’s  chief  minister,  the  notorious  and  hated  Duke 
of  Buckingham;  hence  the  first  cause  of  the  young  King’s  want  of  popularity.  Again,  his 
marriage  with  the  Catholic  princess,  Henrietta  Maria  of  France , was  viewed  with  displeasure 
by  his  Protestant  subjects.  Unsuccessful  and  useless  warfare,  in  which  the  King  was  urged  on 
by  his  minister,  Buckingham,  consumed  large  sums  of  money,  which  Parliament  refused  to  grant, 
demanding  on  their  side  an  extension  of  the  people’s  rights,  and  some  relief  from  taxation, 
while  they  urged  that  a grave  accusation  should  be  preferred  against  the  haughty  minister, 
Buckingham.  The  King’s  anger  was  now  aroused,  and  for  the  sake  of  this  minister,  he  was 
ready  to  dissolve  Parliament.  But  soon  afterwards  Buckingham  was  assassinated  by  Lieutenant 
Felton,  whose  motive  for  the  act  was  private  revenge,  and  thus  the  first  confiict  between  the 
King  and  the  Parliament  was  ended. 

But  new  dissensions  soon  arose  between  them , and  were  continued  until  Parliament 
was,  by  royal  authority,  dissolved  and  its  members  were  dismissed.  Then , for  eleven  years, 
the  King  ruled  without  their  aid.  To  take  their  place,  he  established  »the  Star  Chamber« 
as  a High  Court  of  Justice,  so  that  some  appearance  of  judicial  authority  might  be  given  to 
his  measures;  but  no  change  was  made  for  relief  of  the  grievances  complained  of  under  this 
form  of  arbitrary  government.  Oppressions  of  Puritans  and  Presbyterians  impelled  many  to 
revolt,  and  openly  to  declare  themselves  republicans.  In  Scotland,  where  the  King  was  born 
and  had  spent  his  early  years,  his  subjects  first  rose  in  arms  against  him.  Their  army  of 
malcontents  soon  marched  into  England,  and  here  gained  a victory  over  the  royal  troops  sent 
to  meet  them.  The  King , now  in  great  perplexity , recalled  the  Parliament , and  asked  for 
supplies,  to  raise  forces  for  the  suppression  of  insurrection ; but  in  doing  this,  he  in  fact  de- 
livered himself  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies.  In  the  session  of  3 November  1640,  the  Par- 
liament compelled  the  King  to  sign  a sentence  of  death  on  his  own  true  and  devoted  minister, 
Strafford,  and  to  abolish,  at  the  same  time,  the  most  important  prerogative  of  the  Crown  — that 
of  summoning  and  dissolving  Parliament.  All  judgments  pronounced  by  the  »Star  Chamber* 
were  made  null  and  void;  all  the  special  officers  of  royalty  were  dismissed,  and  the  King  was 
left  destitute  of  supjdies. 

In  Ireland  a mutiny  of  Catholics  against  Protestants  took  place  about  this  time,  and 
served  to  complete  the  misfortunes  of  royalty,  as  it  was  generally  believed  — though  the 
accusation  was  groundless  — that  the  King  himself  had  excited  the  Irish  to  attack  and  slay 
the  Protestants. 

On  the  loth  of  January,  1642,  the  King  with  his  family,  left  London,  and  went  to 
York,  where  he  collected  troops,  mostly  raised  by  the  loyalty  of  the  nobility.  d'hough 
poorly  supplied  with  means  of  warfare,  an  effective  royal  army  was  soon  gathered  and  ])re- 
pared  to  contend  resolutely  for  the  defence  of  the  throne.  For  more  than  a yeaT,  Charles, 
supported  by  this  brave  army,  held  in  check  the  troops  on  the  side  of  Parliament.  The  latter, 
fanatical  in  their  zeal  against  royalty  — especially  excited  by  their  commanders  Fairfax  and 
Cromwell  — gained  at  Naseby  a decisive  victory  over  the  royalists,  and  made  the  King  him- 
self their  prisoner.  At  first,  it  seemed  likely  that  their  chief  Commander  would  interfere,  and 
save  at  least  the  life  of  the  King;  but  it  was  soon  made  clear  that  Cromwell  cherished  for  himself 
an  ambition  of  rising  to  the  highest  place  in  the  realm.  Accordingly,  he  so  used  his  comman- 
ding influence  that,  on  the  2'“*  of  January  164Q,  the  King  was  accused  of  treason  against  the 
State;  a solemn  trial  soon  took  place  in  Westminster  Hall;  Charles  was  placed  at  the  bar, 
accused  as  a tyrant,  a murderer,  and  a foe  to  the  nation,  and  was  condemned  to  death.  For 
a moment,  Cromwell  seemed  irresolute  as  to  carrying  the  sentence  into  execution;  but  his 
son-in-law,  Ireton,  urged  him  to  consider,  that  the  will  of  the  fanatic  army  on  their  side  must 
be  fulfilled.  Accordingly,  on  the  lo'’*  of  January,  1649,  the  King,  Charles  I was  publicly  be- 
headed, on  a scaffold  raised  in  front  of  tlie  Palace  of  W'hitehall.  He  maintained,  in  his  last 
moments,  his  calm  and  self  ])ossesscd  demeanour.  His  private  life  had  been  S|)otlcss,  Endowed 
with  high  general  culture,  with  goodness  of  heart,  and  with  purity  of  morals,  he  fell, 
indeed,  an  innocent  sacrifice  to  the  revolutionary  storm  already  raging  when  he  came  to  the 
throne.  Within  the  space  of  some  fifty  )ears,  there  fell  on  the  scaffold,  in  England,  two 
crowned  heads  — first  Mary  Stuart,  and  next  her  grandson,  Charles  1. 


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Maximilian  I,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  after  1597,  and  Elector  1623  1651 

Horn  17  April  1573,  died  27  September  1651 


Alnximilian  I,  Elector  of  Havana,  born  at  I,anflshut,  on  the  17‘i’  of  A])ri],  1573,  was 
riclily  endowed  by  nature  witli  such  energies  as  were  demanded  to  make  a great  ruler  in  his 
time.  His  education,  confided  to  the  care  of  Jesuits,  and  conducted  in  strict  accordance  with 
Catholicism,  served  to  inspire  him  with  a deej)  enmity  towards  Protestantism.  In  1587  he 
went  to  the  University  of  Ingolstadt,  and  here  enjoyed  the  friendshij)  of  his  cousin  Ferdinand 
of  Steiermark  — a friendship  that  lasted  for  life.  Already,  in  1593,  his  father,  Duke  William  V 
had  made  Maximilian  a partner  in  the  government,  and  in  1597  it  was  entirely  confided 
to  the  son.  In  this  position,  his  first  and  chief  care  was  to  improve  the  financial  circumstances 
of  the  land;  and  his  able  reformation  of  the  national  economy,  was  speedily  crowned  with 
success.  His  own  temperance,  industry  and  love  of  order,  afforded  a good  examjde,  well 
deserving  the  admiration  *of  his  subjects.  He  felt  that  his  duties  as  a ruler  were  sacred 
obligations,  and  like  a father  cared  for  the  whole  land,  and  for  the  lowest  of  his  subjects. 
In  1617  he  made  improvements  in  the  courts  of  justice,  and  aided  the  people  employed  in  the 
salt-mines.  At  the  same  time,  he  patronized  liberally  the  arts  and  sciences;  and  he  was  ever 
ready  to  grant,  with  a generous  hand,  the  aids  reepiired  by  the  Church,  and  for  the  supi)ort 
of  benevolent  institutions. 

Meanwhile,  his  religious  belief  was,  that  the  restoration  of  Catholicism  must  be  made 
the  chief  aim  of  his  life.  Accordingly,  in  1607,  he  was  the  agent  ai)i)ointed  by  the  Emperor, 
to  put  in  force  the  ban  pronounced  ujion  the  free,  imjierial  town  of  Donauwdrth ; and  in 
obedience  to  command,  he  acted  with  great  strictness,  taking  j)ossession  of  the  town.  As  a 
consequence,  he  had  to  confront,  in  1608,  the  forces  collected  by  the  Union  of  Protestants. 
Against  them  he  led,  in  1609,  an  efficient  army,  ready  to  sup])ort  the  policy  of  the  Catholic 
I.eague.  On  the  other  side,  Frederick  V of  the  Palatinate,  acting  for  the  Ihiion,  in  1618 
])roi)osed  that  the  imperial  crown  should  be  offered  to  Maximilian.  Hut  he  firmly  rejected  it, 
foreseeing  that  his  acce])tance  would  be  offensive  to  Austria  aTid  injurious  to  the  C'atholic 
interest.  He  therefore,  with  his  utmost  energy,  assisted  in  the  election  of  his  friend  Ferdinand, 
and  when  the  Hohemian  war  broke  out,  sent  to  his  aid  a force  of  30,000  men.  'These  tro()])s, 
led  by 'Tilly  against  Frederick  V,  gained  the  brilliant  victory  of  the  White  Hill,  near  Prague,  on 
the  8‘''  of  November,  1620.  Maximilian  now  received  the  Electorate  taken  away  from  the 
Palatinate,  of  which  the  UjJi)er  |)art  was  given  to  him,  to  ])ay  the  costs  of  war.  'Tilly,  soon 
afterward,  by  a victory  won  near  butter,  reduced  Christian  IV  of  Denmark  to  a ])osition  of 
neutrality.  'Thus  was  gained  for  .Maximilian  a jjosition  so  eminent  on  the  Catholic  side,  that 
in  1630,  acting  in  concert  with  other  ])rinces  — he  induced  the  Emi)eror  to  dismiss  Wallen- 
stein. Reverses  of  fortune  soon  folk)wcd.  'The  brave  Custavus  Adoli)hus  of  Sweden  appeared 
in  the  field,  defeated  'Tilly  near  Hreitenfeld,  1631,  and  on  the  Tech,  1632;  and  Maximilian 
lived  to  sec  the  Swedes  enter  .Munich,  on  the  17''’  of  .May,  1632.  'The  Imperial  and 
Havarian  armies  gained  a victor)'  at  Ntirdlingen , and  other  successes  were  afterwards  won  by 
the  Havarians;  but  the  land  was  again  left  exposed  to  Swedish  and  French  aggressions,  and 
suffered  under  the  utmost  critelties  of  warfare.  Peace,  long  desired,  appeared  in  1648. 
Maximilian’s  dignity  as  Electcjr  was  then  confirmed,  and  he  retained  possession  of  the  Upi)er 
Palatinate. 

For  the  remainder  of  his  life,  the  veteran  rtiler  devoted  his  time  to  i)ious  exercises, 
and  to  the  work  of  healing  the  wounds  inflicted  on  the  land  by  war.  His  few  leisure  liours 
were  partly  engaged  by  his  care  to  leave  recorded  siufii  i)aternal  and  Christian  admonitions  as 
might  serve  to  guide  his  son  and  successor,  T'erdinand  .Maria.  In  old  age,  Maximilian  was 
still  cheerful;  and,  without  severe  suffering,  his  long  and  er.ergetic  life  was  closed  at  Ingolstadt, 
(jii  the  27''*  of  September,  1651. 





22 


(^BX  hoi  tiiuiiiffLiDV  K A\AXI  M V.S  A.M  r I.lAN‘l  Ihi’inus  ioteslHAiOlS,  et  niAiitu 

liOlC /C'  fusjjtiuiuliii  tili/t  . Vtt'u:\-  iVtenuit  Filiti  Muoniffifncs  . 

Se-KEN15.S  AC  Pol  EN  ri.S.S.PRINC’KPS  AC  DN.’DN:  MAXIMILIAN'’ 

( OM  l*AI.  IUIK,N1  V'TR1V.'?(^  bOIAKI  A.  ^X.  jvt  ndbur^Aj,  .[.f, 


Oliver  Cromwell,  Lord-ProU^clor  of  the  Unitcfl  Republic  of 
Jbio'lund,  Scotland  and  Ireland. 

Jiyrn  April  <lic<l  3 ,Si-'plcml)Cr  if>58 


Oliver  Cromwell,  deseended  from  an  old  Saxon  family,  was  born  at  Hungtingdon, 
on  the  35*''  of  Ajiril,  1599.  After  a short  e.oiirse  of  studies  at  ('ambridge,  he  undertook  the 
management  of  his  i)aternal  estate  in  his  native  phu^e,  wliere  he  lived  as  a strict  puritan,  and 
was  made  a Justice  of  the  Peace,  lie  lived  afterwards  at  St.  Ives  (I'ily)  and  in  1640  was 
returned  to  the  bong  Parliament,  as  member  for  Cambridge.  Having  joinecl  himself  with  the 
leaders  of  the  opposition,  he  now  devoted  his  care  to  the  organization  of  the  Parliamentary 
army;  and  in  September  (1640)  he  was  made  Ca])tain  of  the  scpiadron  of  Cambridge  dragoons 
which  had  been  raised  by  his  own  endeavours.  By  means  of  strict  discipline,  and  religious 
enthusiasm,  he  strengthened  the  army  of  the  Independents,  whom  he  soon  led  on  to  victory, 
first  at  Marston  Moor,  near  York,  in  1644;  then  in  the  decisive  battle  of  Naseby,  in  1645. 

'Phe  King  was  now  compelled  to  place  himself  under  the  protection  of  the  Scots, 
who  soon  delivered  him  back  to  the  English  Parliament.  He  was  treated  as  the  prisoner  of 
the  Independents,  and  it  was  demanded,  that  he  should  abandon  certain  rights,  wich  he  held 
as  belonging  to  royalty.  AVhen  he  refused,  his  deirosition  was  determined  by  Cromwell.  'I'o 
gain  his  object,  the  victor  first  expelled  from  the  Lower  House  those  who  were  oj)posed  to 
his  own  resolution  — the  King’s  deposition.  'Phe  remaining  members,  who  were  known  as 
the  »Rump  Parliament «,  thereujron  instituted,  as  representative  of  the  Independents,  a supreme 
Court  of  Justice,  by  which  the  King  — accused  of  high  treason,  in  levying  war  against  the 
people  — - was  tried,  found  guilty,  and  condemned  to  death.  He  was  publicly  executed,  at 
Whitehall,  on  the  30'^*  of  January,  1649. 

England  was  now  declared  a republic,  and  tlie  Upper  House  was  abolished.  The 
administration  of  government  was  confided  to  a Council  of  forty-one  members,  elected  annually ; 
and  Cromwell  was  one  of  their  number.  As  head  commander  of  the  army,  he  possessed, 
in  fact,  supreme  power  in  England,  where  his  government  met  with  no  great  difficulties. 
Meanwhile,  in  Scotland  and  in  Ireland,  the  people  refused  to  acknowledge  his  authority,  and 
he  hastened  thither,  to  quell  their  insurrection.  To  punish  the  Irish  Catholics  for  their  massacre 
of  Protestants,  in  1641,  he  now  carried  out  against  them  the  extreme  measures  of  unsparing 
warfare ; but  when  it  was  ended,  his  utmost  efforts  were  made  for  the  restoration  of  law  and 
order.  In  the  summer  of  1640,  he  led  his  army  against  the  Scots,  who  had  recognized 
Charles  II  as  their  King.  They  were  defeated  at  Dunbar,  on  the  3’'''  of  September,  1650; 
and  hereupon,  Cromwell  pressed  onward  against  the  Highlanders,  who  were  loyal  to  the  King. 
Charles  II  now  invaded  England ; but  his  followers  were  utterly  defeated  at  Worcester  (3  Sep- 
tember 1651]  and  he  himself,  with  difficulty  made  his  escape  into  France. 

Cromwell , thus  everywhere  victorious,  next  asserted  more  openly  his  disdain  of 
I)arliamentary  government.  On  the  20'*’  of  April  1653,  he  dismissed  the  »Rump  Parliameut«, 
as  no  longer  accordant  with  the  national  will,  and  in  |dace  of  it,  appointed  the  so-called 
»Harebones  Parliament*  consisting  of  men  chosen  from  his  own  i)arty;  but  these  were  soon 
afterwards  dismissed  by  his  sole  authority.  Xext  followed  a new  constitution,  devised  by 
Cromwell’s  chief  adherents  — mostly  military  officers  — who  recognized  their  head-commander 
as  I.ord  Protector  of  the  Republic,  'i’his  new  title  was  formally  given  to  him  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  on  the  i6‘'’  of  December,  1653.  Aided  by  a Council,  consisting  of  military  men,  he 
would,  henceforth,  undertake  the  executive  duties  of  the  government,  while  the  legislative  would 
be  confided  to  a Parliament,  convoked  in  every  third  year. 

The  Protector’s  foreign  jrolicy  was  able  and  successful,  and  made  his  government 
respected  at  home  and  feared  abroad.  'Phis  was  seen  especially  in  his  naval  war  against  the 
Dutch  (1652  — 1654)  when  they  had  declined  the  offer  of  a closer  union  with  England.  Their 
])ridc  was  then  subdued  by  the  Navigation  Act,  intlicting  a fatal  blow  on  their  shipping  and 
mercantile  interests,  and  making  England  (jiieen  of  the  sea.  Soon  afterwards  Cromwell  demanded 
for  England  free  trade  with  the  Spanish  Colonies;  and  their  refusal  was  made  an  occasion  tor 
tlie  warfare  of  1655  -1658,  by  which  England  gained  possession  of  Jamaica  and  Dunkirk. 
On  the  other  hand,  Cromwell  was  always  ready  to  protect  the  interests  of  foreign  Protestants; 
he  made  a friendly  alliance  with  Sweden  ; and  enteitained  the  idea  ot  torming  a great  Evangelical 
Union,  of  which  England  was  to  be  the  head. 

.Meanwhile,  his  new  constitution  for  England  had  still  to  encounter  opposition.  In 
September,  1564,  the  Parliament  was  convoked,  and  some  (piestions  of  government  were  raised, 
but  not  determined.  In  less  than  five  months,  the  members  were  dismissed  ; and  now  England 
was  divided  into  twelve  military  circles,  or  districts.  In  1657  a new  Parliament  voted  that 
the  title  of  King  should  be  given  to  Cromwell;  but  he  declined  it,  tearing  lest  it  might  excite 
Jealousy  among  his  generals.  On  the  (Jther  hand,  he  accepted  the  i)r()posal,  that  lie  sliould 
have  the  right  of  appointing  his  own  successor;  and  he  now  instituted  a new  Uiiper  House. 
In  Januar\'  1658,  the  Parliament  was  reassembled,  and  oppositiim  was  raised  against  the  new 
Lords.  P'ourteen  days  afterwards,  the  members  of  the  Lower  House  were  once  more  dismisscrl. 
This  increased  the  sus])icions  and  fears  already  excited  by  the  Protectors  later  measures,  and 
meanwhile  he  was  disturbed  by  a dread  of  assassination,  while  his  own  domestic  relations  were 
unhappy.  Anxiety  and  dcjiression  vexed  his  later  years,  and  led  to  a rapid  decay  ot  his 
health.  He  died  on  the  3''^’  of  Se])tcmber,  1658  — the  anniversary  of  his  victories  at  Dunbar 
and  Worcester  — and  was  buried,  in  the  royal  vault,  in  W'estminser  Abbey.  In  1661,  his 
remains  and  those  of  some  near  relatives  were  removed  from  the  Abbey,  and  taken  to  a place 
of  public  execution. 

In  the  age  immediately  following  his  own,  Cromwell  was  mostly  regarded  as  a monster 
of  iniiiuity;  but  in  our  own  times  his  character  has  been  more  justly  described  as  that  of  a 
genial  man,  possessed  by  an  arbitrary  and  self-willed  temper.  It  is  now  believed  that  his 
religious  ])rofessions  were  not  hy|)ocritical,  but  rather  enthusiastic.  1 le  esteemed  and  patronized 
art  and  science,  and  .Milton  was  his  friend.  'Phe  Universities  were  indebted  to  him  for  his 
careful  attention  to  their  interests.  He  founded  the  new  University  ot  Durham,  and  lor  some 
time  held  the  office  of  Rector  of  Cambridge. 


23 


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Cardinal  Mazarin,  French  Minister  of  the  Century 

Born  14  July  1602,  died  9 March  1661 


Jules  Mazarin,  the  older  son  of  Pietro  Mazarini  and  his  wife,  Ortensia  Biiffalini,  was 
born,  at  Pescina  in  the  Abruzzi,  on  the  14^*'  of  July  1602.  His  earlier  education,  at  the 
Jesuits’  College  in  Rome,  was  ended  in  his  17'*’  year;  but  he  continued  his  studies  at  Alcala 
and  at  Salamanca,  where  he  gained  an  acquaintance  with  the  Spanish  language,  and  with  the 
traits  of  the  people.  After  his  return  to  Rome,  he  entered  a papal  regiment  of  infantry,  and 
was  engaged  in  the  Veltlin  war.  In  1632,  he  was  appointed  papal  Internuntius  at  the  treaty 

of  Turin.  For  his  later  promotions  he  was  chiefly  indebted  to  the  great  statesman.  Cardinal 

Richelieu.  Through  his  influence,  Mazarin  was  appointed  Vice-legate  at  Avignon,  in  1634; 
rather  later,  as  papal  Nuntius  in  Paris;  and  in  1639,  his  services  were  permanently  engaged 
by  the  French  government.  After  his  diplomatic  success  in  a mission  to  Savoy,  he  was  made 
a Cardinal  (1642)  and  lastly,  Richelieu,  (some  short  time  before  his  decease)  advised  the  King 
to  make  Mazarin  his  first  minister.  The  result  was,  that,  when  Richelieu  died,  his  favourite 

was  appointed  as  his  successor.  Mazarin  was  made  first  minister. 

The  position  thus  gained  was  retained  after  the  decease  of  Louis  XIII  (1643).  As 
far  as  possible,  the  new  minister  exluded  from  the  Court  all  who  were  not  devoted  to  his 
service ; but  in  doing  this  he  raised  against  himself  some  powerful  enemies ; especially  the 
leaders  of  the  Fronde  party  — such  men  as  the  Prince  Conde.  Cardinal  Retz  and  the  Duke 
of  Orleans,  who  made  profession  of  a care  for  the  rigths  of  the  Parliament,  which  Mazarin 
had  disregarded.  Hereupon,  he  was  compelled  to  leave  Paris,  taking  with  him  the  court  and 
the  government.  Still  under  parliamentary  censure  — he  returned  to  Paris,  after  no  long 
absence,  and  here  sent  some  of  his  enemies  to  prison.  The  result  was  that,  in  1650,  — again 
compelled  to  escape  from  Paris  — he  went  by  way  of  Liege  to  Cologne  and  here  conducted 

the  affairs  of  government.  In  1652  he  ventured  to  make  his  appearance  again  in  Paris;  but 

soon  afterwards  he  retreated  for  the  third  time.  His  motive  now  was  to  facilitate  the  reconciliation 
of  the  contending  parties.  Lastly,  in  1653,  he  returned  to  his  post,  and  resumed  his  policy 
of  making  the  monarchy  absolute  in  I'Vance.  Meanwhile  commerce  and  industry  were  in  a 
depressed  condition,-  and  heavy  taxation  supi)lied  the  means  of  foreign  warfare. 

In  his  foreign  policy,  Mazarin  followed  the  example  left  by  his  great  patron  and  teacher 
— Richelieu  — ■ above  all,  in  the  course  taken,  to  make  France  a gainer  by  interference  in 

the  Thirty  Years’  War.  To  humiliate  the  House  of  Hairsburg,  in  Germany  and  Spain ; and  to 

extend  the  boundary  of  France  as  far  as  the  Rhine  — these  were  the  aims  of  Mazarin’s 
foreign  policy ; and  to  a considerable  extent,  they  were  attained  in  the  Peace  of  Westphalia, 
whereby  Alsace  was  gained  for  France,  and  not  Alsace  alone,  but  also  a dominant  influence 
over  the  West  of  Germany.  Hardly  less  important  was  the  so-called  Peace  of  the  Pyrenees 
(1659)  when  France  gained  Roussillon  and  a part  of  Flanders,  in  exchange  for  Franche  Comte; 
while  for  Louis  XIV  there  was  opened  a prospect  of  rule  over  Spain.  Mazarin’s  foreign  policy 
was  thus  crowned  with  a success  soon  followed  by  his  decease.  He  died  of  dropsy,  at 
Vincennes,  on  the  9'*'  of  March  1661;  leaving  his  large  estates  to  the  husband  of  his  niece, 
Ortensia  Mancini. 

As  regards  his  personal  character  — Mazarin  (in  contrast  with  his  first  jjatron  and 
guide)  was  mild  in  his  temper,  and  merciful  in  the  choice  of  means  tor  gaining  his  ends.  He 
was  eminent  as  a ])atron  of  art  and  science;  founded  the  Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts;  and 
introduced  Italian  Opera.  His  celebrated  library  was  always  open  to  men  of  learning;  and 
among  those  who  were  indebted  to  his  generous  patronage  were  found  such  men  as  Descartes, 
Voiture,  Balsac  and  Peter  Corneille. 


24 


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Philip  IV,  King  of  Spain,  1621 — 1665 

IJorn  8 April  1C05,  died  17  September  1665 


Philip  IV,  son  of  King  Philip  III  of  Spain,  by  his  wife  Margaret  of  Austria,  was  born 
at  Madrid,  on  the  8'*’  of  April,  1605,  and  acceded  to  the  throne  of  Spain,  on  the  21“  of 
March,  1621,  when  he  was  only  sixteen  years  old.  Incapable  of  any  serious  sense  of  his 
responsibility,  he  had  once  resigned  all  cares  of  government  to  his  favourite  Count  Olivarez, 
who , for  the  twenty-three  years  following , led  his  royal  master,  as  a child  is  led  in 
leadings-strings. 

Meanwhile  financial  difficulties  were  urgent  in  Spain,  and  the  Minister  made  domestic 
affairs  worse,  by  his  violent  and  hazardous  measures.  In  foreign  policy,  Spain  had  more  and 
more  lost  her  influence,  and  he  vainly  proposed  to  recover  it  by  means  of  an  alliance  with 
Austria.  At  home  and  abroad,  his  policy  failed,  especially  in  Spain.  Here  he  would  abolish 
the  special  rights  and  privileges  belonging  severally  to  certain  districts,  and  would  suddenly 
make  the  whole  land  subject  to  the  same  laws  and  regulations.  In  consecjuence  of  these  rash 
innovations,  poverty  was  increased,  and  the  insurrections  that  took  place  in  several  districts 
were  with  difficulty  suppressed;  while  abroad,  the  fortune  of  warfare  was  adverse  to  Spain. 

Already,  under  Philip  III,  Spain  had  taken  a ])art  in  the  Thirty  Years’  War,  and 
after  1635  — had  been  led  into  an  unhappy  war  with  France.  'I'he  general  aim  of  Spain’s 
alliance  with  Austria,  was  to  gain  nothing  less  than  universal  supremacy  for  the  House  of 
Hapsburg  — a plan  that  had  been  opposed  by  Richelieu ; at  first  secretly,  then  openly,  by 
giving  support  to  the  enemies  of  that  alliance.  Among  them,  the  Dutch,  contending  for  their 
own  freedom,  held  the  foremost  place,  and  against  them,  in  1621,  warfiire  (after  a twelve 

years'  truce)  had  been  resumed.  It  was  at  last  decided,  more  by  naval  victories  than  by  any 
engagements  between  landforces.  Spanish  commerce  was  greatly  obstructed,  the  I )utch,  by  their 
victory  of  1639,  continued  the  superior  jtower  of  their  fleet,  and  by  the  Peace  of  Westphalia, 
Philip  was  com])clled  to  acknowledge  the  indeitcndcnce  of  the  Rci)ub!ic.  In  1640  extreme 
]jressure  of  taxation  led  to  a dangerous  insurrection  in  Catalonia,  and  about  the  same  time 
occurred  the  revolt  that  raised  the  Duke  of  Pranganza  to  the  throne  of  Portugal.  These 
misfortunes  caused  the  fall  of  the  absolute  Minister,  Olivarez;  but  the  change  so  made  was 
rather  jjcrsonal  than  systematic;  for  his  successor  was  his  nephew,  Don  Luis  de  Haro,  who 
was,  however,  milder  and  less  disliked  than  his  |)redec.essor.  Some  good  fortune  for  Spain 

followed.  Mas.sanicllo’s  insurrection  in  Naples,  1647,  was  happily  suppressed,  and  after  the 
decease  of  Richelieu,  France  was  less  energetic  in  prosecuting  the  war.  Accordingly,  by  the  Peace 
of  West])halia  — confirmed  by  the  marriage  of  Phili])’s  oldest  daughter,  'I'hercsia,  with  Louis  \1V 
of  I' ranee  — .Spain,  by  sacrificing  Roussillon,  .Artois,  and  a few  other  districts,  made  France 
contented.  Hut  disasters  for  S|)ain  were  not  ended.  I'he  war  undertaken  against  the  revolted 
Portuguese  was  a failure,  and  the  Spanish  army  suffered  an  utter  defeat  at  A'illaviciosa.  King 
I'hilip  did  not  long  survive  this  last  calamity.  He  died,  sixty  years  old,  at  .Madrid,  on  the 
17'*’  of  Sei)teinber  1665. 

It  seemed  like  a stroke  of  irony  wlien  Olivarez  gave  to  the  incapable  King  his 
surname  »the  Oreat«  ; and  ])opular  wit  described  his  greatness  as  like  that  of  »a  hollow  place 
made  larger  and  larger  by  e.xcavations«.  In  private  life  Philip  IV,  though  given  to  luxury, 

was  mU  utterly  without  good  (pialitics.  He  was  affable,  and  generous  to  his  friends,  and 

showed  some  traits  of  a su|)erior  mind.  He  patronized  art  and  science,  and  wrote  (it  is  said) 
a tragedy.  The  Escurial,  in  its  decorations,  shows  his  love  of  splendour.  The  flourishing  drama, 
enriched  by  Lope  de  \Tga  and  Calderon,  and  the  [)aintings  of  Velas(iuez  and  .Murillo,  shed 
some  light  over  the  dismal  gloom  of  his  reign. 


25 


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Henrietta  Maria,  Queen  of  England,  1625  1649 

Born  25  November  1609,  died  lo  September  1666 


Henrietta  Maria  was  the  youngest  daughter  of  Henry  IV  of  France.  She  was  in  her 
sixteenth  year  when  — obeying  the  wish  expressed  by  her  father  and  by  James  I of  England 
— she  married  Charles,  heir  to  the  English  throne.  He  first  saw  her  at  a ball  given  in  the 
Louvre,  when  he  was  passing  incognito  trough  France  into  Spain,  there  to  show  himself  as 
a candidate  for  betrothal  to  the  Princess  Infantin.  The  marriage  awakened  the  displeasure  of 
the  English  nation,  especially  as  the  papal  dispensation  was  granted  on  the  condition,  that  the 
Queen  and  her  offspring  must  be  surrounded  only  by  Catholic  attendants  and  servants.  Soon 
therefore  a party  was  formed  in  England  to  oppose  the  political  power  ascribed  to  the  Queen, 
and  every  royal  measure  that  might  seem  unfavourable  to  the  Anglican  Church  was  viewed 
as  evidence  that  the  King  had  been  guided  by  her  influence.  Her  foreign  freedom  of  manners 
also  served  to  increase  English  and  puritan  prejudice  against  »the  French  Princess*;  and  the 
difficulties  of  Charles  I , in  his  conflict  with  Parliament,  made  her  life  in  England  sad  and 
anxious,  however  true  and  amiable  might  be  the  conduct  of  her  husband.  I'heir  fiimily 
included  two  sons  — Charles  II  and  James  II,  and  a daughter,  Henrietta  (1644)  who  after- 
wards was  married  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans.  Impelled  by  dread  of  Cromwells  approaching 
army,  the  Queen  escaped  into  France.  Here  the  not  insignificant  sum  of  10,000  francs  a month 
was  formally  given  for  her  sup])ort,  but  she  was  soon  found  in  distress  for  want  of  money.  In 
fact,  on  account  of  the  large  demands  made  for  carrying  on  warfare  against  the  Fronde, 
it  was  found  impossible  to  pay  regularly  the  sums  granted  for  her  income.  At  the  dcatli  of  her 
husband  (1649)  she  was  overwhelmed  by  sorrow.  Louis  XIV  was  iirduced  by  Cromwell  to 
expel  her  two  sons  from  h'rance,  and  the  most  tragical  moment  in  her  life  occurred,  when  — 
compelled  by  want  to  ajjply  for  suj)plies  to  her  husband’s  murderer  ■ — her  prayer  was  rejected. 
After  this  stroke  of  affliction,  she  retired  into  utter  solitude  and  remained  in  France  until  the 
restoration  of  her  son  Charles  II  to  the  English  throne,  1660,  when  she  came  with  him  to 
Jriigland,  and  here  si)ent  a short  time.  After  her  return  to  France,  she  founded,  by  the  aid 
of  Louis  XI V^,  the  convent  of  Chaillot,  and  bought  for  her  own  residence  a mansion  in  Colombes, 
where  she  died,  10  September  1666. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  compare  with  her  ])ortrait  this  cotemporary  description  of  her 
person,  written  by  .Madame  de  .Motteville : »Shc  has  beautiful  eyes,  an  admirable  complexion, 
and  a well-shaped  nose;  and  her  expression  is  so  amiable  that  one  must  like  her.  Hut  she 
is  very  thin,  and  of  low  stature,  while  her  mouth  — not  well  shaped  in  itself  — seems  too 
large  for  her  face*.  'I'his  sketch  was  made,  when  the  Queen  was  35  years  old,  and  her  beauty 
had  waned  under  the  influence  of  persecution  and  sorrow. 


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Sf.keniss!  lt  Po  I km  1 iss!  D } IF.  N R IC  A MARIA  ROR  RON  I A Dei  Guatia 

bRl  I ANNlvt:,  h'RA'NCl/P:  El 

_ KF.GINA,  > rc 

Hemricl  IV.  Galliakvm  kt  Navarr/i:  Re(;is  Fil. 

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'Vt  omn^ena  KnulLwrue  lunA/  JiorintUiirn<},  tla  Jttyulart  tivrururri  .'irliu/n  Fuutort  et  Pattmw.  Uumt'm  hanc  tiiuir  h‘i\,’ratyfan  luuv  aiL’rtbus  txpr^um 

mt/r  tius  cimrluj  Jjiei'latur.  Lil/  ^Hfr  DrJuuha:  .>Lith  .inioniuj.  Outs  ^ntrerp 


Dj  i F /W*  ^.7^/1 


hiF  u r.J*  f^. 


Mary  TI,  Queen  of  England,  1689 — 1695 

Born  10  May  1662,  died  7 January  1695 


Mary  11,  Queen  of  England,  the  elder  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  York  (afterwards 
James  ID  by  his  first  wife  Anne  Hyde,  daughter  of  the  Chancellor,  Earl  Clarendon,  was  born 
in  London,  10  May  1662.  Though  her  father  was  a Catholic,  she  was  educated  in  accor- 
dance with  the  tenets  of  the  Anglican  Church.  She  was  hardly  fifteen  years  old,  when  Prince 
William  of  Orange  sued  for  her  hand ; and  her  father  (then  Duke  of  Yorkl  unwillingly  gave 
consent  to  the  marriage,  which  however  was  desired  by  King  Charles  II,  tough  the  Prince  of 
Orange  was  strictly  a Protestant.  In  November  1677  the  marriage  was  celebrated,  and  soon 
afterwards,  Mary  followed  her  husband,  who  had  returned  tq  the  Netherlands. 

William,  by  nature  reserved,  cold  and  disposed  to  be  silent,  seemed  to  have  no  liking 
for  any  ]xirsuits  beyond  the  affairs  of  the  state  — relieved  now  and  then  by  field-sports  — 
and  paid  but  little  attention  to  his  young  wife,  while  she  looked  up  to  him  with  an  admiration 
almost  unbounded.  Her  constant  amiability  and  submission  gradually  won  his  confidence.  In 
view  of  her  own  future  claim  to  the  English  throne,  she  declared  her  willingness  to  yield  both 
the  royal  title  and  the  actual  government  of  England  into  the  hands  of  her  husband,  and  it 
was  soon  made  possible  that  her  promised  should  be  fulfilled.  In  1688  her  father’s  reactionary 
measures  in  Church  and  State  had  led  to  a popular  o])position  so  strong,  that  Prince  \Villiam 
of  Orange  was  invited  to  take  for  himself  the  Phiglish  Crown.  His  wife  declined  to  rule  alone ; 
and  consequently  she  was  invited  to  rule  in  concert  with  her  husband,  to  whom  the  general 
execution  of  royal  duties  might  belong.  On  the  23'''’  of  February,  1689,  she  was  hailed  with 
much  enthusiasm  when  treading  once  more  on  English  ground ; but  her  demeanour  excited 
also  no  little  censure  when,  with  evident  gaiety  of  heart,  she  entered  the  royal  palace  — so 
lately  the  home  of  her  father,  now  driven  into  exile  and  made  homeless.  It  seemed  as  if 
loyalty  to  her  husband  had  utterly  destroyed  the  natural  feelings  of  a daughter’s  heart. 

English  by  birth  and  in  her  manners,  she  knew  how,  by  an  amiable  address,  to 
conciliate  those  who  were  rei)ellcd  by  the  gloomy  and  reserved  manners  of  her  husband ; and 
she  could  also  — when  required  — give  proof  that  she  had  firmness  and  energy  of  character. 
During  William’s  absence  — while  he  was  engaged  in  Ireland,  there  supi)ressing  a Jacobite 
revolt  against  his  dynasty  — the  (Jucen,  entrusted  with  the  regency,  gave  orders  for  the  arrest 
and  imjjrisonment  of  her  uncle.  Lord  Clarendon,  and  of  other  leading  Jacobites.  'I'o  guard 
herself,  she  employed  ])rccautionary  measures  that  were  indeed  strict,  but  not  crucll)’  coercive, 
as  her  enemies  have  said.  She  expelled  from  all  friendly  intercourse  even  her  own  younger 
sister,  Anne,  because  she  would  retain  such  relations  with  .Marlborough  as  might  be  injurious 
to  the  State’s  welfare. 

Her  husband’s  less  attractive  (jualities  would  have  been  more  repulsive  had  they  not 
been  moderated  by  her  presence.  For  nearly  six  years  she  had  shared  with  him  tlie  cares  of 
government,  when  she  was  suddenly  attacked  by  the  small  ])ox  — then  so  prevalent.  Immediately, 
she  gave  orders  that  her  ladies  in  attendance  and  others,  who  had  not  had  tlie  disease,  sliould 
leave  the  Palace;  and  next  she  sent  a letter  to  conciliate  her  sister  .Anne.  .After  suffering  tor 
three  days,  shee  died,  7 January  1695,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  .Abbey.  Her  death 
was  for  William  an  overwhelming  sorrow.  Never  before,  (it  was  believed)  did  he  lose  self-control, 
but  now  his  life  was  in  danger,  trough  exce.ssive  grief  To  honour  her  memory,  he  founded 
now  at  Crcenwich  a hospital  for  invalid  setiinen,  a charity  that  the  (Jueen  hat  recommended. 


' 


27 


James  II,  King  of  England,  1685  -1688 

Born  24  Oct.  1633,  died  16  Sept.  1701 


James  II,  second  son  of  Charles  I,  was  born,  24  October  1633  and  was  educated  in 

France.  His  first  military  honours  were  won  in  the  Thirty  Years’  War,  when  he  served  under 

'I'urenne  and  Conde.  i\fter  the  restoration  of  his  brother,  Charles  II,  he  was  made  Lord  High 
Admiral;  but  his  naval  victory  over  the  Dutch  in  1665,  and  his  courage  shown  in  the  battle 
on  the  Southwolt  Roads,  alike  failed  to  remove  the  prejudice  against  him  excited  by  his  return 
to  the  Catholic  Church.  The  English  people  feared  lest  he  should  also  return  to  the  policy  of 
his  father,  Charles  I.  The  Test  Act  declaring  that  none  save  members  of  the  Anglican  Church, 
should  be  appointed  to  hold  office,  compelled  him  to  resign  his  post,  and  the  majority  of  the 
Whigs  in  Parliament  passed  a bill  by  which  he  was  excluded  from  succession  to  the  throne ; 
but  this  act  was  not  confirmed  by  the  I’pper  House.  Accordingly,  on  the  decease  of  his 

brother,  1685,  he  ascended  the  throne.  Popular  prejudice  against  him  was  still  more  excited 

by  his  inconsiderate  zeal  for  the  restoration  of  Catholicism,  and  by  his  reassertion  of  rights 
belonging,  he  said,  to  the  Crown.  His  declarations  of  his  own  authority  served,  in  fact,  to 
aid  the  popularity  of  his  rival,  the  Duke  of  Monmouth  — ■ a natural  son  of  Charles  II  — who 
now  appeared  as  a claimant  for  the  throne.  He  was  sui)ported  by  many  followers  in  the 
West  of  England,  but  was  defeated  at  Sedgemoor,  1685,  and  was  soon  put  to  death.  While 
James  II  had  no  child,  the  people,  hoping  that  his  decease  would  make  an  end  of  all  Catholic- 
claims,  tolerated  his  arbitrary  rule;  but  when  his  second  wife,  Maria  Beatrice  of  Este,  gave 
birth  to  a son,  a dread  of  papal  supremacy  was  again  excited,  and  this  was  followed  by  the  groat 
movement,  known  in  English  history  as  »the  glorious  revolution*.  W'illiam  of  Orange,  Stadtholderof 
the  Netherlands  and  son-in-law  of  James  II,  was  invited  by  many  leaders  in  English  politics,  to 
come  over  and  take  the  throne.  He  landed,  5 November  1688,  in  Torbay,  and  was  so  well 
received  that  James  II,  with  his  family  made  their  esca])e  to  France.  1 1 ere  several  attempts 
were  made  in  favour  of  his  restoration  to  the  throne;  but  the  end  of  all  was,  that  he  died, 
an  exile,  at  St.  Cermain,  16  September,  1701. 


* 


i, 


♦ 


u 

K. 


/. 


Anne,  Queen  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  1702  1714 

Born  6 Febr.  1664,  died  12  Aug.  1714 


Anne,  Queen  of  England,  was  the  second  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  York  (afterwards 
James  II)  by  his  first  wife,  Anne  Hyde,  daughter  of  the  celebrated  Lord  Clarendon,  and  was 
born  at  'rwickenham , near  I>ondon,  6 February,  1664.  like  her  elder  sister,  she  was 
educated  in  submission  to  the  Anglican  Church,  and  in  1683  married  Prince  George,  brother 
of  King  Christian  V,  of  Denmark.  Though  the  favourite  daughter  of  James  II,  she  did  not 
follow  his  example  of  allegiance  to  the  Catholic  Church.  When  he  lost  popular  favour  by  taking 
that  course,  and  William,  Prince  of  Orange  was  called  to  the  throne,  the  Princess  Anne 
favoured  William’s  party;  but  during  his  reign  she  lived  quietly  as  before,  under  her  fathers 
authority,  and  did  not  interfere  in  political  affairs. 

When  William  died,  19  March  1702,  Anne  succeeded  to  the  throne;  but  her  personal 
influence  in  the  government  was  small.  She  confided  all  measures  to  the  care  of  her  Y hig 
advisers,  especially  to  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  and  his  wife,  and  their  party  retained  power 
nearly  to  the  close  of  the  reign.  Under  their  govemment,  Scotland  and  England  were  (in 
1707)  more  closely  united,  by  representation  in  one  parliament,  by  equal  political  rights  and 
with  regard  to  taxation.  It  was  to  be  ascribed  also  to  the  influence  of  Marlborough,  that 
Anne  supported  the  alliance  of  Holland  and  Germany  against  France,  in  order  to  ])revcnt  the 
union  of  France  with  Spain,  under  one  ruler.  The  war,  so  commenced,  was  carried  on  under 
the  able  command  of  Marlborough,  whose  victories  of  Oudenarde,  Ramillies  and  Blenheim  made 
England  both  glorious  and  formidable  in  her  military  ])ower. 

W'ith  regard  to  succession  to  the  throne  — in  case  of  the  (Jueen’s  decease,  leaving  no 
heir  — it  was  determined  (by  Parliament)  that  the  Crown  should  belong  to  the  » Protestant 
descendants«  of  the  Stuart  family.  Accordingly,  when  Anne  died,  her  lawful  successor  was 
recognized  in  So])hia,  grand-daughter  of  James  I of  England,  and  widow  of  the  Elector  of 
Hanover.  By  this  law  of  succession,  the  claims  of  James  III,  half-brother  of  (Jueen  .Anne, 
were  utterly  denied,  and  he  was  called  »thc  Pretender*.  Some  attempts  were  made  to  maintain 
his  right  to  the  throne;  but  they  were  failures.  At  heart  the  Queen  herself  was  on  his  side; 
but  she  had  in  fact  no  power.  England  was  governed  by  the  contending  parties,  \\  hig 
and  Tory. 

After  the  fall  of  Marlborough,  in  171  o,  the  war  against  France  was  carried  on  with 
less  energy,  and  was  closed  by  the  Peace  of  Utrecht,  11  .Ai)ril,  1713.  'Tins  War  of  tlie  Spanisli 
Succession  had  gained  great  advantages  for  England.  Her  colonics,  commerce  and  political 
influence  were  extended;  the  Revolution  of  1688,  and  the  law  of  a I’rotestant  Succession  were 
generally  recognized  by  the  jjowers  of  Europe. 

Near  the  close  of  her  reign,  the  (Jueen,  aided  by  men  of  the  Tory  i)arty,  made  some 
efforts  in  favour  of  her  brother’s  succession;  but  in  vain.  A few  weeks  before  her  decease, 
she  was  com])elled  to  sign  a ])roclamation  against  him,  and  to  set  a i)rice  on  his  head.  She 
died,  12  August  1714,  with  her  latest  breath  dei)loring  the  unhai)py  fate  of  her  brother. 

Her  reign  was  an  important  ei)Och  in  ])olitical  history,  as  in  literary  culture,  though 
her  i)crsonal  influence  could  hardly  be  less.  Slightly  educated,  apathetic,  o|)en  to  llattery,  and 
incapable  of  indc|)endent  action  — throughout  her  life  she  was  made  subject  to  more  energetic 
advisers.  Hence  the  strange  contrast  between  her  will  and  her  action  in  her  treatment  ot  her 
brother’s  claim  to  the  throne.  Her  |)iivate  life  was  blameless,  and  she  was  just  and  kind 
toward  attendants  and  servants.  Her  feebleness,  or  want  of  character,  was  not  disadvantageous 
to  the  developcmcnl  of  England’s  political  imwer. 


■cG*+»£A 


29 


Louis  XIV,  King-  of  France,  1643 — 1715 

Born  5 September  1638,  died  i September  1715 


Louis  XIY,  born  5 September,  1638,  succeeded  his  father,  Louis  XIII,  in  1643. 
a minor,  he  remained  under  the  guardianship  of  his  mother,  Anna  of  Austria,  who  confided 
to  the  minister,  Mazarin,  the  charge  of,  all  political  affairs.  On  the  decease  of  Mazarin  in 

1661,  Louis  assumed  the  ofhee  of  a King,  and  soon  gave  proof  of  the  energy  and  firmness 

by  which  he  made  himself  absolute,  and  gained  for  France  a sui)reme  influence  over  foreign 
affairs.  The  King’s  clear  insight  was  especially  shown  in  his  choice  of  ministers  and  generals : 

among  them  Colbert,  as  an  excellent  minister  of  finance  and  commerce,  Louvois,  as  minister 

for  war,  Turenne  and  Conde,  as  commanders  of  armies. 

In  1660  Louis  married  the  Spanish  Princess,  Maria  Theresia,  whose  renunciation  of 
her  own  hereditary  right  he  had  previously  declared  to  be  null  and  void.  Accordingly,  in 
1667,  after  the  death  of  his  father-in-law,  Philip  IV  of  Spain,  Louis  preferred  his  own  claim 
to  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  and  without  much  difficulty  gained  possession,  in  the  summer  of 
1667.  In  1668,  by  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  he  gained  for  France  twelve  fortresses  on 
the  Belgian  frontier;  but  — not  satisfied  with  that  acquisition  — he  began,  in  1672,  a second 
jmedatory  war  against  the  Netherlands  — - then  utterly  unprepared  for  the  attack  — and  in  the 
course  of  a few  weeks,  he  had  gained  possession  of  the  provinces.  Soon  however,  when 
strengthened  under  the  rule  of  William  III  of  Orange,  and  aided  by  Brandenburg,  Oermany 
and  Spain,  they  compelled  Louis  to  renounce  his  conquest  of  the  Republic,  and  the  Peace  of 
Nimmegen  left  for  him  only  some  parts  of  Alsace  and  Franche-Comte.  Again,  however,  he 
renewed  his  aggression,  and  by  means  of  his  new  Courts  of  Appeal  (or  »Re.union«)  held  at 
Metz  and  other  jflaces,  the  decisions  of  earlier  treaties  were  revised ; so  that  more  territory  in 
the  Netherlands  and  in  Alsace  was  assigned  to  him ; and  in  the  midst  of  peace,  on  the  last 
day  of  September,  1681,  he  besieged  Strasburg.  As  in  political,  so  in  religious  affairs,  he  was 
des])otic;  he  persecuted  the  Jansenists  (enemies  of  the  Jesuits)  and  revoked  the  »Fdict  of 
Nantes«  — thus  com])elling  some  hundred  thousand  of  industrious  people  to  emigrate 
from  France. 

Against  Louis  XIV,  a treaty  of  alliance  was  concluded,  in  1686,  between  Holland, 
Brandenburg,  the  Cerman  Emperor,  Spain,  and  Sweden.  'I’o  their  alliance  he  ojjposcd,  in 
1688,  a declaration  of  war  which  was  soon  followed  by  his  third  ])redatory  campaign,  otherwise 
called  the  Palatinate  W'ar.  After  the  devastation  of  the  Palatinate  districts  on  the  Rhine,  the 
French  were  again  victorious  on  land  in  the  Netherlands,  as  on  the  Rhine;  but  their  attempt 
to  win  back  for  James  II  the  English  throne,  was  utterly  frustrated  by  their  naval  defeat  off 
Cape  Lahogue,  on  the  29'*'  of  May,  1692.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  conditions  of  peace, 
settled  by  the  treaties  of  Turin  and  Ryswick,  were  favourable  to  Louis,  who  thereby  retained 
possession  of  Alsace,  with  Strasburg.  In  the  .Spanish  W’ar  of  Succession  his  arms  were  but 
|)artly  successful. 

Charles  II  of  Spain,  who  died  in  1700,  left  a will  by  which  succession  to  the  throne 
of  S|)ain  belonged  to  Phili])  of  Anjou,  the  second  grandson  of  Louis  Xl\';  and  by  the  treaty 
of  Utrecht  (1713)  Louis  retainctl  for  his  grandson  the  greater  i)art  of  his  inheritance,  while  he 
kept  undiminished  for  himself  the  lands  he  had  con<[uercd. 

lie  lived  long  enough  to  see  the  power  of  his  monarchy  declining,  and  his  death, 
which  took  jflace  on  the  first  of  September  in  1715,  might  almost  be  said  to  be  hailed  with 
joy  by  the  French  peojjle;  for  hunger,  war  and  |)crsecutions  had  thinned  the  population,  and 
the  land  was  heavily  burdened  by  a monstrous  debt  of  two  milliards,  incurred  in  a great 
measure  by  the  extravagance  of  his  Court.  Here  the  rule  of  his  mistresses  — LavalliNe, 
Montes|)an,  Fontanges  and  Maintenon  - had  long  prevailed,  and  had  exposed  to  the  view 
of  the  jjeople  an  evil  example,  destructive  of  public  morality,  anil  leading  to  the  ruin  of 
the  land. 


30 


John  Churchill,  Duke  of  Marlborough,  British  Commander  and 

.Statesman 

Born  34  June  1650,  died  17  June  1723 


John  Churchill,  son  of  Glanvillc  Churchill,  by  his  wife,  Elizabeth  Drake  — a relative 
of  the  {Treat  Admiral  Drake  — was  born  at  Ashe  in  Devonshire,  24  June,  1650.  When  fifteen 
)ears  old  he  was  employed  as  a page  in  the  household  of  the  Duke  of  York,  who  gained 
for  him  the  position  of  an  ensign  in  the  Guards.  He  fought  in  Africa  against  the  Moors,  in 
1666;  afterward  under  Turenne  in  the  Netherlands  (1672  and  later)  and  in  1678  he  married 
Sarah  Jennings,  an  intimate  friend  of  the  Princess  Anne,  the  Duke  of  York's  younger  daugther. 
In  1685,  ""'hen  the  Duke,  (as  James  ID  acceded  to  the  throne,  Churchill  was  raised  to  the 
peerage,  with  the  title  of  Baron  Churchill  of  Sandridge ; but  he  remained  still  opposed  to  the 
King’s  reactionary  policy.  He  indeed  acted  with  energy  for  the  suppression  of  Monmouth’s 
insurrection,  but  afterwards,  with  fife  thousand  men,  he  went  over  to  the  side  ot  Prince  M’illiam 
of  Orange.  To  reward  him,  the  Prince  made  him  Earl  of  Marlborough,  and  gave  him  a scat 
in  the  Privy  Council ; but  did  not  fully  trust  his  loyalty.  As  tests  of  fidelity,  his  services  in 
Ireland  and  in  the  Netherlands  appeared  satisfactory;  but  he  was  not  contented  with  his  mili- 
tary promotion  and  still  was  suspected  of  being  at  heart  a Jacobite.  In  1692  he  was  sent  to 
the  Tower  and  was  liberated  only  on  account  of  some  legal  defects  of  evidence.  In  1697 
the  King  first  showed  confidence  in  Marlborough,  by  ai)pointing  him  Crovernor  of  the  young 
Duke  of  Gloucester. 

When  Anne  came  to  the  throne  (1702)  the  triumphs  of  Marlborough  soon  followed. 
His  wife  ruled  the  Queen,  and  the  Premier  (whose  son  had  married  Marlborough’s  daughter) 
was  in  fact  controlled  by  the  Karl.  Greater  honours  followed  the  victories  won  in  the  ^\’ar  of 
the  Spanish  Succession.  As  Commander  in  Chief,  Marlborough  displayed,  in  diplomacy  and 
strategy,  talents  of  the  highest  order.  'Po  him  must  be  ascribed  the  fact,  that  the  alliance 
formed  against  Louis  XIV  was  maintained  until  17  ii.  He  captured,  in  1702,  the  fortresses 
on  the  middle  Maas,  and  for  this  service  was  created  Manpiis  of  Hlanford  and  Duke  of 
•Marlborough.  'Phen  followed  his  victory  over  the  Bavarians  at  Donauworth,  and  that  over  the 
h'rench  at  Blenheim,  and  the  Queen  built  for  him  the  Castle  of  Blenheim,  near  Woodstock.  'I’he 
Kin]Jcror  gave  to  the  British  hero  the  rank  of  a German  Prince,  and  created  for  him  the 
princijjality  of  Mindelhcim  in  Hp])er  Suabia,  which  Marlborough  resigned  at  the  Peace  of 
Phrecht.  Again  his  victory  won  near  Ramilies,  1706,  made  all  Brabant  subject  to  the  power 
of  the  allied  forces.  Yendome,  the  Drench  general,  could  not  maintain  his  ground  against  the 
English  Commander.  In  vain  Louis  XIV  now  offered  terms  of  peace.  'Phe  further  victories 
of  Gudenardc  and  Malplarjuet  made  it  inevitable  that  Prance  must  be  utterly  defeated. 

Meanwhile,  in  Plngland  the  Duke’s  enemies  had  pre\ailed,  and  his  ])osition  was 
greatly  injured  when  his  wife  lost  the  (Jueen’s  favour.  'Phe  absolute  command  of  the  war 
was  taken  away  ' from  him.  His  enemies,  the  'Pories  — now  Ln  office  — were  planning  a 
treaty  of  i)eace  with  Louis  XIV,  and  Marlborough  — recalled,  and  accused  of  corruption 
and  misuse  of  money  — was  deposed  from  all  his  offices,  i January  1712.  Only  by  the  aid 
of  his  ally.  Prince  Eugene  was  it  effected,  that  the  prosecution  was  stayed  by  the  (Jueen.  'Phe 
great  Commander,  suffering  under  extreme  vexation,  retired  to  the  continent,  and  did  not 
come  back  until  1714,  when  the  (Jueen  died.  His  offices  and  dignities  were  then  restored  by 
King  George  I.  'Pwo  years  later,  a fit  of  apoplexy  compelled  him  to  retire  finally.  After  a 
career  of  extraordinary  energy  and  success,  he  died  at  Windsor  Lodge,  on  the  17“''  of  June,  1722. 

Marlborough  was  an  able  dijilomatist,  whose  success  was,  in  a great  measure,  owing 
to  the  foresight  and  address  shown  in  his  early  life.  He  was  a genial  Commander,  whenever 
was  defeated  in  a serious  engagement,  and  his  strategy  — as  shown  in  his  co-operation  with 
Prince  Eugene  — again  and  again  led  to  victory.  Hut  as  a man  — in  politics,  private 
friendship  and  loyal  submission  — he  was  far  inferior  to  his  ally. 


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Peter  I,  the  Great,  Czar,  and  afterwards  Kmperor  of  Russia 

1682  1725 

Uorn  9 June  1672,  died  8 February  1725 


Peter  I,  Alexejewitsch,  Czar,  son  ot  the  Czar  Alexei,  by  his  second  marriage  with 
Natalia  Kirilowna,  daughter  of  the  Pojar  Narischkin  — was  born  on  the  9^’’  of  June  (—  30  May, 
old  style)  1672,  at  Kolomanskoje-Sfelo,  a village  near  Moscow.  In  1682  he  was  proclaimed 
Czar;  but,  his  ambitious  half-sister  Sophia  com])elled  him  to  yield  a share  in  his  dignity  to 
his  older  but  weak-minded  brother,  Ivan,  who  died  in  1696.  Sophia  herself  ruled,  and  her 
selfish  designs  made  her  envious  of  Peter,  to  whom  she  gave  only  a scanty  and  careless 
education ; but  she  could  not  suppress  his  ardent  love  of  knowledge,  and  his  desire  to  lead  an 
active  life.  By  his  marriage  with  Eudoxia  Feodorowna,  Lapuchin,  he  gained  the  support  of 
many  friends  who  belonged  to  the  higher  class,  and  now  he  could  bid  defiance  to  Sophia, 
who  had  raised  against  him  an  insurrection  of  the  body-guards.  This  was  soon  suppressed,  and 
she  was  imprisoned  in  a convent.  Meanwhile  Peter  had  studied  military  strategy,  and  now 
devoted  himself  to  the  task  of  training,  with  the  aid  of  foreign  officers,  a Russian  army  that 
could  meet  the  requirements  of  modem,  European  warfare.  At  the  same  time,  he  collected  a 
fleet,  powerful  enough  to  defeat  the  Turkish  navy,  and  to  win  access  to  the  sea  by  the 
capture  of  Asof  (1696).  This  fortress  was  definitively  ceded  to  him  by  the  Porte,  in  1700. 

In  April  1697,  Peter  set  out  on  his  travels  with  the  desire  of  making  himself  acquainted 
with  the  resources  of  modern  culture.  At  first  he  made  himself  a member  in  an  Embassy 
passing  through  Germany  on  the  way  to  Holland.  At  Saardam  he  worked  as  a common 
carpenter,  in  the  yard  of  a ship-builder;  then  he  paid  a visit  to  William  III  of  England,  and 

here  received  at  Oxford  a doctor’s  diploma.  He  was  recalled  into  Russia  by  the  news  of 

another  insurrection  of  the  body-guards.  This  was  suppressed  and  ultimately  the  refractory 
soldiery  were  dismissed.  His  wife  Eudoxia,  who  had  aided  in  the  plans  of  the  » Old  Russian* 
party,  was  sent  to  a Convent. 

So  began  a resolute  series  of  reforms,  intended  to  raise  Russia  to  eminence  among 
the  i’owcrs  of  Europe.  A wish  to  assert  his  rights  in  the  Baltic  led  Peter  into  a war  against 
Charles  XII  of  Sweden,  who  at  N’arva(i7oo)  inflicted  a defeat  on  the  Russians,  but  afterwards 
failed  to  prevent  their  capture  of  Ingcrmanland,  where  Peter  laid  the  foundation  of  his  future 
metropolis  (27  May  1703).  His  success  was  continued  in  subse([uent  warfare  against  Sweden, 

especially  in  his  great  victory  at  Poltava  (8  July  1709)  where  the  enemy  was  finally  defeated; 

but  on  the  other  hand,  the  war  against  the  Turks  led  to  disaster.  His  army  — shut  up  in 

its  position  on  the  Pruth  — was  saved  only  by  the  Huscher  'I'reaty  of  1711,  which  was 

arranged  by  the  intervention  of  Catherine,  his  second  wife,  while  Peter  had  to  surrender  .Asof, 
as  the  |)rice  demanded  for  the  Peace.  In  1723  he  took  from  Persia  the  fortified  town  Derbent, 
on  the  Caspian  Sea.  The  Nystader  Peace  of  1721  secured  for  him  all  tlie  Swedish  Baltic 
provinces  extending  from  Livonia  as  far  as  Karelien.  After  this  conclusion  of  peace,  the 
Czar  assumed  the  title  of  Emperor  of  all  the  Russias.  Already  (iii  1720)  he  had  declared 

himself  Head  of  the  Holy  Synod.  His  health  had  long  been  failing,  when  his  death  was 

hastened  by  an  accident.  While  making  exertions  to  rescue  the  crew  of  a stranded  ship,  he 
caught  a cold  tliat  soon  proved  fatal.  He  died  on  the  8‘''  of  hebruary  (=  28  January, 
old  style)  1725. 

Peter  the  Great  was  an  al)le  and  genial  ruler.  His  military  successes,  and  his  lar- 
reacliing  reforms,  laid  the  foundation  of  Russia’s  greatness.  No  tlepartment  of  tlie  government 
was  neglected  under  his  rule.  He  founded  schools,  and  instituted  (in  1724)  the  Academy  of 
.Sciences;  he  raised  the  character  of  the  national  religion;  createcl  laws;  built  towns;  made 
canals;  and  aided  tlie  jjrogress  of  industry  and  commerce;  he  was  generous  in  paying  others 
for  tlieir  services,  and  was  impartial  in  the  infliction  of  ])unishment.  But  the  shades  in  his 
character  are  dark.  He  allowed  himself  to  be  controlled  by  intemperance,  licentious  passion, 
and  cruelty.  He  was  ruled  so  tar  by  his  cruel  temper,  that  he  condemned  to  death  his  own 
son,  Alexei  Petrowitsch. 


George  I,  Eleetor  of  Hanover  (after  1698)  and  King  of 

England,  1714—1727 

Born  28  May  1660,  died  23  June  1727 


George  I Ludwig,  King  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  Elector  of  Hanover,  and  Duke 
of  Brunswick-Liineburg,  was  the  oldest  son  of  Ernst  August  of  Hanover,  by  his  wife,  Sophia 
of  the  Palatinate,  the  granddaughter  of  James  1.  She  had  been  declared  heiress  to  the  British 
throne,  by  the  Protestant  Succession  Act  of  1701.  Hence  the  claim  of  her  son,  George  I,  born 
in  Hanover,  28  May  1660.  As  early  as  1675,  he  had  gained  distinction  in  the  army,  and  in 
1683  he  aided  in  winning  a victory  over  the  Turks.  In  1705,  he  obtained  by  his  marriage 
with  Sophia  Dorothea,  the  duchies  of  Ltineburg- Celle  and  Lauenburg.  The  marriage  was 
unhappy,  and  George  made  his  wife  in  fact  a prisoner.  I'or  the  remainder  of  her  life  after 
1694,  though  she  was  the  mother  of  his  son,  George,  (afterwards  George  II  of  England,)  she 
was  confined  to  the  residence  assigned  to  her  at  Ahlden. 

As  Elector  of  Hanover,  after  1698,  when  his  father  died,  George  I showed  some 
ruling  ability,  though  his  temperament  was  mostly  phlegmatic.  On  the  death  of  his  mother, 
1714,  her  hereditary  claim  to  the  English  throne  descended  to  him;  but  he  did  not 
leave  Hanover  until  he  was  called  into  England  by  the  decease  of  Queen  Anne,  which  took 
place  later  in  the  same  year.  As  King  of  England,  he  showed  favour  to  those  most  devoted 
to  his  cause,  and  they  soon  formed  a new  Ministry  of  ^^'higs  under  the  active  leadership  of 
Walpole.  On  the  other  side,  among  the  Tories  dismissed  from  their  offices,  a combination  was 
made,  to  support  the  Pretender,  whom  they  recognized  as  James  III,  but  the  insurrection  of 
1715  was  easily  suppressed,  and  its  adherents  suffered  severely.  To  guard  against  another 
rising  on  their  side,  the  King  extended  the  term  allowed  for  the  session  of  Parliament,  and 
strengthened  the  royal  power  by  means  of  standing  army. 

'Phe  chief  aim  of  his  foreign  i)olicy  was,  to  maintain  i)cace  in  Europe,  and  so  prevent 
Erance  from  interference  in  support  of  the  Stuarts.  Eor  this  end,  England  in  1717  was  joined 
with  Erance  and  Holland  in  the  'I'riple  Alliance,  which  in  the  following  year  was  made 
(Juadru])lc,  when  Austria  was  involved  in  war  with  Spain,  and  the  Emperor  united  his  forces  with 
those  of  the  Allies.  In  the  war  that  followed,  England  soon  found  an  opportunity  of  showing 
the  power  of  her  fleet,  which,  in  August  1718,  gained  a decisive  victory  over  the  Spanish 
fleet.  In  1725,  Spain  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Austria,  for  the  re-compiest  of  Gibraltar 
and  Minorca.  'Phis  design  was  defeated  by  the  able  ])olicy  of  George,  who  now  formeal  an 
alliance  with  Prussia  and  Erance.  Always  mindful  of  his  native  land's  prosperit}',  he  interfered 
in  the  war  against  Sweden,  called  the  Northern  war,  and  when  it  was  ended  by  the  IVace  of 
Stockholm,  1719,  he  gained  i)ossession  of  the  duchies  Bremen  and  Verden.  lie  was  on  a journey 
to  Hanover,  when  he  was  prostrated  by  an  apo])lectic  seizure,  and  died  suddenly,  at  Osnabriick, 
22  June,  1727. 

George  I could  never  win  the  cordial  loyalty  of  the  English,  lie  did  not  even  take 
the  pains  of  learning  their  language,  or  (jf  making  himself  at  home  with  them,  as  to  their 
manners  and  morals.  On  the  contrary,  his  heavy  and  awkward  person  and  address,  his  freMpient 
visits  to  Hanover,  the  foreign  liaisons  that  disgraced  his  Gourt,  and  his  unpleasant  relations 
with  the  Crown  I’rincc  — all  tended  to  excite  dislike,  and  he  was  sternly  censured  by  many 
who  in  ]Jolilics  were  not  his  foes.  His  constitutional  government,  and  his  prudence  in  foreign 
jjolicy  were  fairly  estimated.  'Phe  union  of  Englantl  and  Hanover,  caused  by  his  accession, 
lasted  until  the  accession  of  Victoria,  in  1837,  and  had  an  important  inlluence  in  the  political 
aftairs  of  Germany,  and  indeed  in  those  of  Europe. 


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Augustus,  suriiamed  „the  Strong",  Elector  of  Saxony,  after  1694, 
and  King  of  Poland,  1697 — 1733 

Born  12  May  1670,  died  i February  1733 


Augustus,  »the  Strong*,  as  King  of  Poland,  entitled  Augustus  II,  and  as  Elector  of 
Saxony,  Frederick  Augustus  I,  second  son  of  the  Elector  John  George  III  of  Saxony,  and  his 
wife  the  Danish  Princess,  Anna  Sophia,  was  born  at  Dresden,  on  the  12*  of  May,  1670. 
After  a careful  education,  he  visited,  in  1687  — 1689,  most  of  the  Courts  of  Ifurope,  where 
he  was  generally  admired,  partly  on  account  of  his  handsome  person  and  remarkable  strength 
(hence  his  surname)  but  also  for  his  intellectual  powers  and  his  agreeable,  chivalrous  address. 
As  Elector  of  Saxony,  he  was  the  successor  of  his  older  brother  John  George  IV,  after  whose 
decease,  27  April  1694,  he  made  an  alliance  wth  Austria,  and  was  appointed  Chief  Commander 
of  the  imperial  army  in  the  war  aigainst  the  Turks;  but  the  unfortunate  battle  at  Olasch  caused 
his  resignation  of  the  command  in  1696.  His  love  of  an  active  career,  could  not  rest  contented 
within  the  narrow  bounds  of  Saxony,  but  led  him  to  contend  for  the  throne  of  Poland,  left 
vacant  by  the  decease  of  John  Sobieski,  in  1696.  To  gain  this  throne,  Augustus  entered  the 
Catholic  Church,  at  Baden  near  Vienna,  on  the  2"*^  of  June  1697. 

Among  his  opponents  the  most  formidable  was  the  FVench  Prince  Conti  who,  in  rivalry 
with  Augustus  expended  enormous  sums  of  money  in  his  bribery  of  Polish  noblemen.  By  an 
expenditure  of  ten  millions  of  Polish  florins,  Augustus  at  last  gained  his  end.  He  was 
elected  by  the  Polish  diet,  27  June  1697,  marched  with  eight  thousand  Saxons,  into  Poland, 
and  was  crowned,  with  great  pomp,  at  Cracow,  on  the  15'*'  of  September,  d'wo  years  later, 
he  made  an  alliance  with  Russia  and  Denmark,  to  recover  the  Polish  j^rovinces  held  by 
Sweden,  and  led  his  Saxon  troops  into  Livonia;  though  the  Polish  aristocracy  refused  to  aid  him 
in  this  expedition,  in  which  he  was  found  no  match  for  the  genial  warrior,  Charles  XII.  Again 
and  again  the  invader  was  defeated,  and  in  1704  the  Polish  State  Council  declared  that  he 
was  no  longer  King.  Stanislaus  Leszczynski,  ^Vojwode  of  Posen,  was  now  raised  to  the  throne. 
The  Swedes  drove  the  invader  back  to  Saxony,  and  compelled  him,  in  1706,  to  conclude 
with  them  the  humiliating  peace  of  .Mtranstiidt ; to  pay  largely  for  their  expenditure  in  the  war ; 
and  to  recognize  Stanislaus,  as  King  of  Poland  ; moreover  to  congratulate  him  on  his  accession 
to  the  throne.  After  his  de])Osition,  .Augustus  served  as  a volunteer  under  Prince  Eugene,  in 
the  Netherlands;  but  new  ho])es  were  excited  by  the  defeat  of  Charles  XI 1 at  Pultava.  The 
bad  fortune  of  Augustus  was  suddenly  changed.  He  declared  the  .Altranstadt  treaty  null  and 
void,  marched  with  a strong  army  into  Poland,  deposed  Stanislaus,  and  was  again  called  to 
take  the  throne.  In  the  next  year,  he  continued  the  war  against  Sweden,  which  was  brouglit 
to  a close  by  the  death  of  (.'liarles  Xll,  in  1718.  The  truce  of  Deceml)er  1719  was,  ten 
years  afterwards,  so  extended  that  a definitive  jieace  was  concluded. 

After  his  failure,  in  trying  to  make  the  Poles  submit  to  coercive  rule,  .Augustus  was 

driven  to  employ  other  means.  'I'hc  general  dislike  excited  by  the  presem'e  of  liis  Saxon 

troojjs  was  so  great,  that  they  were  in  fact  expelled  from  Poland  in  1717,  and  tlie  Ring  was 

left  to  win  |)opularity  by  the  luxury  of  his  Court.  It  was  renowned  as  tlie  most  splendid  Court 

in  Euiojie,  and  the  King  was  admired  for  liis  extreme  love  of  display.  His  extravagant 
expenditure  made  the  ca|)ital  famous  for  its  treasures  of  art,  but  at  tlie  same  time  left  the  jieople 
burdened  with  a load  of  jioverty  and  misery.  lie  died  at  Warsaw,  on  the  of  Pebruary 
1733,  and  was  interred  at  Cracow.  lie  had  married  without  liking,  Christine  Lberhardine,  of 
Brandenburg-Kulmbach , mother  of  the  Crown  Prince;  but  had  lived  mostly  separated  from  his 
wife.  Among  his  very  numerous  natural  children,  the  most  distinguished  was  the  General, 
Maurice  of  Saxony. 


34 


llC^lhSlLt^ 

^roloii  I a nun 
^Jaxcnicc  : ^ 


Elizabeth,  Empress  of  Russia,  1741  1762 

I)orll  29  December  1709,  died  5 January  1762 


Elizabeth  Petrowna,  Empress  of  Russia,  born  at  St.  Petersburg  on  the  29'’’  of  December 
1709,  had  been  appointed  successor  to  the  throne  by  her  mother,  Catherine  I ; but  yielding  to 
her  natural  indolence,  she  neglected  to  assert  her  rightful  claim.  Consequently,  the  Dutchess 
of  Courland,  Anna  Iwanowna,  a niece  of  Peter  the  Great,  ascended  the  throne  in  1730.  At 
her  death  (1740)  she  named  as  her  successor  Ivan,  the  son  of  her  niece,  the  Dutchess  of 
Prunswick-W'olfenbtittel,  who  now  assumed  the  regency.  Soon  afterwards,  an  attempt  was  made  to 
compel  Elizabeth  to  marry  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  Anna’s  brother-in-law;  but  the  plot  was 
frustrated,  chiefly  by  the  interference  of  L’Estocq,  Elizabeth’s  physician  and  favourite,  who  was 
aided  by  the  French  ambassador,  the  Marquis  de  la  Chetardie.  In  obedience  to  their  advice, 
she  declined  the  proposed  alliance,  and  — trusting  in  the  popularity  still  commanded  by  the 
name  of  her  father,  Peter  the  Great  — she  now  raised  an  insurrection  against  Ivan  and 
his  mother.  Both  were  made  prisoners,  on  the  6'^  of  December,  1741;  when  the  troops  hailed 
Elizabeth  as  their  new  Empress.  In  1742  she  was  crowned  at  Moscow,  and  then  — to  confirm 

her  own  rule,  — she  appointed  as  her  successor,  her  nephew.  Prince  Karl  Peter  Pdrich  of 

Holstein-Gottorp. 

Her  reign  was  not  without  military  success.  The  war  with  Sweden  fortunately  cairicd  on 
by  Field-Marshal  Lacy,  and  ended  in  the  Peace  of  Abo  (1743)  was  not  dis.advantageous  to  Russia. 
'I'he  opposition  of  France  did  not  deter  Elizabeth  from  sending  an  army  to  aid  Maria  'Fhercsia  in 
the  Austrian  war  of  Succession  against  Frederick  11.  The  conclusion  of  peace  at  Aix  la  Ghapcllc 
(1748)  was  at  least  hastened  by  the  aid  of  Russia.  Again  the  Fhnpress  aided  Austria  in  the  Seven 

^'cars’.  War  against  Frederick  11.  His  sarcastic  remarks  on  her  Court  had  been  reported  to 

J'.lizabeth,  who  consetiucntly  had  a personal  motive  for  her  opposition  to  his  arms.  The  Russian 
forces  conquered  at  Grossjagersdorf  and  at  Kunersdorf;  they  plundered  Berlin,  and  captured 
Kolberg;  but  their  successes  had  no  decisive  effect  on  the  general  result  of  the  war.  The 

Empress  did  not  live  to  sec  its  conclusion.  She  died  at  St.  Petersburg,  on  the  5‘’'  of 

January  1762. 

Elizabeth  was  neither  destitute  of  mental  gifts;  nor  incapable  of  showing,  sometimes, 

that  she  had  a strong  will ; but  habitual  indolence  was  her  chief  trait.  Her  gross  sensuality 

led  her  to  choose  such  favourites  as  Schuvaloff,  Woronzow,  and  Bestushew.  The  last,  tough 
notoriously  corruiU,  was  made  High  Chancellor.  'I'he  I'lmpress,  meanwhile,  — generally 
commended  for  her  »mild«  rule  — gained  i)opularity  by  some  of  her  measures;  especially  by  the 
removal  of  interior  customs  in  great  Russia,  and  of  the  general  toll  levied  in  l.esser  Russia. 
Elizabeth  had  some  taste  for  literature  and  the  fine  arts,  as  was  shown  by  her  founding  the 
I'niversity  of  Moscow,  and  the  .Academy  of  the  I'inc  .Arts  at  St.  Petersburg. 


/ 


Louis  XV,  King  of  France,  1715 — 1774 

Born  15  February  1710,  died  lo  May  177+ 


Louis  XV,  great  grandson  of  Louis  XIV,  succeeded  to  the  throne  when  only  five 
years  old.  He  had  attained  his  majority,  when  he  confided  the  government  of  France  first  to 
the  Duke  of  Bourbon,  and  then  to  Cardinal  Fleury.  In  1725  Louis  XV  married  the  daughter 
of  Stanislaus  Leszscynski,  of  Poland,  and  was  by  this  alliance  involved  in  the  Polish  war  of 
succession,  by  which  he  gained  expectancy  of  Loraine.  His  interference  in  the  Austrian  war 
of  succession  was  a failure,  and  extremely  costly  to  France.  By  the  strategetic  error  of  Marshal 
Soubise,  in  the  Seven  Years’  War,  the  military  character  of  France  was  exposed  to  the  ridicule 
of  Furope,  and  her  ])olitical  influence  was  utterly  forfeited. 

While  the  policy  of  Louis  XV  thus  destroyed  the  importance  of  France  among  the 
great  jmwers  of  Europe,  his  gross  extravagance  ruined  the  financial  position  of  the  country, 
and  as  by  design,  led  on  surely  to  the  Revolution.  His  own  expenditure,  and  his  useless 
wars  were  to  be  paid  for  by  his  arbitrary  taxation,  chiefly  of  the  lower  classes,  and,  with  a 
senseless  and  brutal  tyranny,  he  su])pressed  in  1771,  the  resistance  of  Parliament  which  he 
reduced  to  the  rank  of  Law  Court,  destitute  of  political  influence.  At  his  death,  10  .May 
1774,  he  leit  France  burdened  by  a debt  of  four  thousand  millions  of  livres. 


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Maria  Theresia,  Roman  Empress,  Queen  of  Hungary  and 

Bohemia,  1740 — 1780 

Born  13  May  1717,  died  29  November  1780 


Maria  Theresia,  oldest  daughter  of  Charles  VI,  was  born  on  the  13'*’  of  May  1717. 
In  1736  she  was  married  to  Francis  Stephen  of  Loraine,  Arch-duke  of  Tuscany,  who  had  been 
educated  at  the  imperial  court.  On  the  death  of  her  father,  1740,  she  acceded  to  the  throne, 
b\-  virtue  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  by  which  her  right  of  succession  had  been  determined. 
Her  husband  was  appointed  by  her  to  be  Co-Regent,  though  she  gave  to  him  no  considerable 
share  in  the  government.  As  Francis  I,  he  was  crowned  Roman-German  Emperor,  in  1745. 

In  the  beginning  of  her  reign,  the  young  Empress  found  herself  opposed  by  a mighty 
coalition.  A ^Car  of  Succession  was  begun  by  Elector  Charles  Albert  of  Bavaria,  who  claimed  as 
his  own  right  succession  to  the  throne  of  Austria.  Soon  followed  the  first  and  the  second  Silesian  War. 
'I'he  resources  of  Austria  were  nearly  e.xhausted  and  financial  affairs  were  perplexing,  while  the  army 
was  reduced  to  less  than  a hundred  thousand  men.  In  this  dangerous  position  of  affairs,  the 
Empress  did  not  lose  her  courage.  Her  own  brave  heart  was  her  chief  sujrport  against  the 
ruin  threatening  her  realm,  and  enabled  her  to  confront  boldly  even  her  most  formidable  enemy 
— Frederick  II,  the  young  King  of  Prussia;  but  so  great  was  the  success  of  his  arms,  that 
she  was  compelled  to  cede  to  Prussia  the  greatest  ])art  of  Silesia,  when  the  war  was  ended 
by  the  Peace  of  Dresden,  concluded  on  the  25'^  of  December,  1745.  On  the  other  side,  her 
hereditary  succession  to  the  monarchy  of  Austria  was  established  by  the  Peace  of  Aix-la-Chai)elle, 
on  the  1 8'’'  of  October  1748. 

'Fhen  followed  eight  years  of  peace,  well  employed  by  Maria  Theresia  in  the  improvement 
of  Austria’s  domestic  circumstances.  Abuses  in  the  government  were  removed ; a strong  army 
was  organized,  and  reforms  took  place  in  finance,  as  in  the  administration  of  justice.  Still, 
amid  all  her  cares  for  domestic  reforms,  the  Empress  could  not  forget  her  loss  of  Austria. 
Her  most  earnest  wish,  long  secretly  cherished,  was  to  see  an  alliance  of  Austria  with  France, 
Russia,  Sweden,  and  Saxony  — all  united  to  opi)o.se  the  growing  power  of  Prussia;  and  in 
this  great  j)lan  she  was  aided  by  the  able  i)olicy  of  her  Chancellor,  Kaunitz,  who  acted  as  her 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affiiirs.  But  Frederick  II,  by  his  invasion  of  Saxony,  in  1756,  forestalled  the 
action  of  the  -Mlies  (who  had  intended  to  begin  their  attack  in  1757)  and  so  began  the  Seven 
\’car’s  M ar,  that  after  severe  contests  was  ended  by  the  Peace  of  Hubertusburg  (15  February 
1763)  when  the  several  i)arties  in  the  contest  were  confirmed  in  possession  of  the  territories  they 
had  gained  before  the  war  was  begun. 

After  the  decease  of  her  husband  (1765)  the  Flm])rcss  made  her  son  Co-Regent;  but 
confided  to  his  independent  control  (jiily  military  affairs.  Unwillingly  she  took  ])art  in  the 
first  ])artition  of  Poland;  and  in  the  Bavarian  war  of  succession  she  was  guitled  more  by  her 
son's  advice  than  by  her  own  will.  In  the  Peace  of 'I'cschen  ( r 3 .May,  1779''  she  was  content 
to  take  only  the  Immiuartcr.  Soon  after  this  conclusion  of  peace  she  died,  on  the  2(/''  of 
November  1780,  leaving  to  her  son  the  Austrian  monarchy  raised  to  an  eminent  position,  and 
defended  by  an  army  of  280,000  men. 

.Maria  'i'hcrcsia  possessed  a noble  mind  and  a manly  fortitude  of  soul.  Left  by  her 
father  in  ignorance  of  all  affairs  (;f  state,  she  was  able  to  meet  ably  the  difficulties  of  her  early 
reign.  T(j  improve  domestic  government ; and  t(j  raise  the  jjower  of  the  State  in  its  foreign 
relations  — these  were  her  chief  aims.  She  founded  schools  and  orphan-houses;  abolished 
trial  by  means  of  torture,  and  also  serfdom  in  the  German  |)roviirces  of  the  monarchy;  and 
encouraged  agriculture,  industry  and  commerce,  while  she  was  always  careful  to  increase  the 
strength  of  her  army.  Endowed  with  the  virtues  of  a truly  feminine  character,  uniting  pure 
morality  with  jjersonal  beauty,  she  was  at  (jiice  a beneficent  ruler,  anti  a kind  mother  to  her 
own  family. 


37 


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I > ()  I) 

(IMNIVA!  IIVMII.MMA 
Dh.VDTlSblMA 
A A IJ,  SOCMK'l'AS 


VM/t>77(V  /)/•;  AUll'l'h'.NS  riNXI’t' 

/’////.  \Nnu  laiJAN  svAU^’nin's  mu  nyi'Ai  ts  scv/.rsir 


l^'rcdcrick  11,  of  Prussia,  17.10  1786 

I!oni  24  January  1712,  died  17  August  1786 


r'l'ctlcrick  »thc  (Jrcat*  has  Itcen  also  surnamcd  »the()nly  Onc«,  and  vvitli  right;  for 
the  century  in  whicli  he  lived  bears  the  impress  of  his  character,  and  is  ctilled  »the  age  of 
Frederick,  the  Oreat*.  The  motto  prefixed  (by  the  ])oet  Maltitz)  to  a biography  of  the  King, 
is  hardly  too  bold : 

Said  Fate,  » great  King,  no  son  will  bear 
Thy  name,  or  in  thy  glory  share. 

But  thou,  as  all  thine  own,  shalt  claim 
• The  century  that  bears  thy  name«. 

As  the  Crown  Prince,  and  under  the  stern  and  even  cruel  discipline  of  his  father  — 
Frederick  William  I of  Prussia,  a man  of  iron  will  — FT'ederick  had  much  to  endure.  Flis 
mother  was  the  daughter  of  Sophia  Dorothea,  of  Celle,  (after  separation  from  her  husband 
known  as  the  Duchess  of  Ahlden)  who  on  the  maternal  side  belonged  to  a French  family. 
'Po  this  admixture  of  blood  might  be  ascribed  some  traits  in  the  Prince’s  character  — especially 
his  love  of  music  and  poetry  — and  these  were  developed  by  the  French  governess,  Madame 
de  Roucoulles,  to  whose  care  his  training  in  boyhood  was  confided.  To  her,  no  -doubt,  the 
boy  was  partly  indebted  for  the  culture  and  refinement  shown  in  later  years. 

Meanwhile  the  Prince  had  awakened  the  displeasure  of  his  father,  who  feared  lest  his 
son  should  be  nothing  better  than  a weak  amateur;  should  never  be  a soldier.  An  erroneous 
foreboding  — the  greatest  General  of  his  century  no  soldier! 

At  last,  the  father’s  harsh  conduct  drove  the  son  to  resolve,  that  he  would  make  his 
escape  to  England;  and  now  his  father  arrested  him  as  guilty  of  desertion  and  high  treason. 
.■\11  the  Ambassadors,  with  the  Kings  of  Poland  and  .Sweden  — then  present  at  the  Court  of 
Prussia  — pleaded  in  behalf  of  the  Prince,  and  partly  succeeded  in  quelling  the  King’s  fury. 
He  did  not  put  the  J’rince  to  death,  as  had  been  intended , but  made  him  a prisoner  at 
Kiistrin,  and  here  compelled  him  to  witness  the  execution  of  his  friend.  Lieutenant  Katte,  who 
had  aided  him  in  planning  the  escape  to  Fingland.  This  cruelty  had  a terrible  eftcct  on  the 
Prince;  his  heart  seemed  petrified.  The  father,  however,  was  not  fully  reconciled,  until  Frederick 
had  consented  to  marry  the  Princess  F21izabeth  Christine  of  Brunswick-ltevern , for  whom  he 
had  no  affection.  He  subsequently  evinced  the  highest  esteem  and  respect  in  his  conduct 
toward  his  wife ; and  with  her  he  sjjcnt  his  ha])i)iest  youthful  days,  when  they  lived  together 
at  Rheinsberg.  Here  he  had  leisure  for  music  and  poetry,  as  his  recreations;  but  his  earnest 
studies  were  history  and  military  strategy,  the  latter  esi)ecially,  as  shown  in  the  cami)aigns  of 
the  great  Conde. 

On  the  3i®‘  of  .May,  1740,  Frederick  acceded  to  the  throne,  with  his  father's  blessing 
on  his  head.  The  late  King  had  felt  sure,  that  his  successor’s  career  would  be  glorious,  and 
his  ])rediction  was  soon  fulfilled.  In  the  first  year  of  his  reign,  Frederick,  by  his  compicst  of 
Silesia,  made  himself  the  hero  of  his  century.  .A  few  years  later,  he  was  victorious  in 
the  Second  Silesian  ^\'ar;  and  on  the  24'''  of  .August  17  56,  the  celebrated  Se\  en  \’cars'  War 
began.  In  the  sixteen  chief  battles  that  followed,  he  was  victorious  at  Lowositz,  Prague, 
Kossbach  , Leiithen,  Krefeld,  Zorndorf,  .Minden,  l.icgnitz  and  Torgau. 

During  his  years  of  peace,  Frederick  expended  his  utmost  efforts  for  the  good  government 
and  prosjjerity  of  the  realm;  while  he  aided  in  the  spread  of  a higher  culture  of  the  arts  and 
sciences.  He  built  in  Berlin  an  Opera  House,  and  invited  from  Paris  scholars  and  men 
distinguished  in  literature.  He  was  himself  the  author  of  several  woiks  having  an  historical 
im|)ortance,  but  they  were  written  it>  French;  for  he  neglected  German  literature,  and  despised 
his  own  native  language  of  Under  the  inlluence  of  his  friend,  X’oltaire,  he  was  taught  to 
regard  religion  with  indifference  or  contempt;  though  he  rcsi)ected  morality,  and  was  careful 
in  his  own  moral  conduct.  He  contracted  no  liaisons.  'I'he  anecdotes  told  of  his  relations 
with  the  d.'inseuse,  Barbarina  ('ampanini,  are  mostly  false.  He  indeed  admired  her  person 
and  her  skill  in  dancing;  but  he  was  subject  to  only  one  passion  — ambition.  'I'rue;  he  was 
capable  of  friendshi]),  and  could  entertain  toward  certain  ladies  the  affection  which  Gicero  has 
finely  described  as  amor  amicitiae.  This,  we  arc  assured,  was  the  only  bond  by  which 
he  was,  for  a long  time,  attached  to  the  xirtuous,  fair  and  acconqilished  lady.  Von  W'recch. 

After,  suftering  long  from  drojisy  and  feebleness  of  body,  the  King  died  at  .Sanssouci, 
on  the  17“''  of  August,  1786,  leaving  to  his  successor  an  extended  realm,  and  full  treastiry,  a 
well-discijilined  army,  and  a people  on  the  whole  to  be  described  as  educated,  industrious  and 
prosiierous.  I'he  light  shed  by  the  hero's  career  is  still  shining  to  guide  us. 


3« 


•;  I’';-,  r ,ii  ' . > -.'J-'  ' . ' '■> 


I 


i 


Louis  XVT,  Kinp^  of  France,  774 — 1793 

liorn  23  Aiijjubt  1751.;  died  21  January  1793 


I-ouis  XVI,  King  of  France,  the  third  son  of  the  Dauphin  T,oiiis,  l)y  his 

marriage  with  Maria  Jose])ha  of  Saxony,  was  1)orn  at  Versailles,  on  the  23'’''  of  August  1754. 
In  liis  earlier  years  he  was  known  as  the  Duke  of  I'crri ; but  after  the  death  of  his  (dder 
brother,  and  that  of  his  fatlicr  (in  1765)  he  succeeded  to  the  title  of  Dauphin.  On  the  io‘''  of 
May,  1770  he  married  the  Princess  Marie  Antoinette  of  Austria  who,  though  distinguished  by 
her  jiersonal  beauty,  never  gained  popular  favour  in  France.  'I'he  King  was  amiable  and 
benevolent;  but  his  narrow  education  had  not  developed  the  powers  of  his  mind,  which  was 
naturally  deficient  in  energy. 

His  want  of  self-confidence  made  him  dread  his  accession  to  the  throne,  which  took 
])lacc  at  the  death  of  his  grandfather,  Louis  XV,  on  the  lo'*’  of  May  1774.  Meanwhile,  the 
people  gladly  hailed  their  new  King. 

Immorality,  extravagant  expenditure,  and  an  inglorious  policy,  had  disgraced  the  reign 
of  Louis  XV,  and  had  caused  an  ever-increasing  deficit  in  the  financial  resources  of  France. 
'I'he  people  were  complaining  under  a load  of  taxes,  mostly  extorted  from  the  lower  classes,  the 
higher  classes,  possessing  two  thirds  of  the  land,  were  comparatively  exempt  from  taxation.  To 
restore  contentment,  the  first  measure  urgently  demanded,  was  a fairly  proportionate  distribution 
of  the  public  burdens,  and  the  King  was  sincerely  desirous  of  making  this  reform;  but  conten- 
ding parties  surrounded  him,  and  their  several  arguments  served  to  perplex  his  irresolute  mind, 
whenever  practical  measures  were  submitted  for  his  decision  on  their  merits.  He  made,  however, 
soon  after  his  accession,  an  important  step  toward  reform,  when  he  appointed  'Purgot  as 
Minister  of  Finance.  The  measures  proposed  by  this  honest  minister  were  chiefly  decentra- 
lization of  the  government,  abolition  of  certain  heavy  ta.xes,  and  a reduction  of  the  deficit; 
but  before  they  could  be  carried  into  effect,  Turgot  was  expelled  from  office,  in  1776.  His 
second  successor,  the  banker  Necker,  had  recourse  to  raising  new  loans,  in  order  to  reimburse 
France  for  her  expenditure  in  aid  of  the  North  American  war  ot  liberation.  At  a later  time, 
Necker  proposed  a reduction  in  expenditure,  and  especially  exposed  the  extravagance  of  the 
Court.  'I'he  consequence  was  his  dismissal  from  office,  in  1781.  'I'hen  followed  the  financial 
experiments  of  Calonnes  and  De  Briennes,  after  which  Louis  was  compelled  to  recall  Necker, 
as  Minister  of  Finance  (i 780)  and  moreover  to  convoke  the  Tiers  Iritats,  who  had  not  been 
assembled  since  the  year  1614.  'I'hey  now  came  together,  and  held  a parliament  at  Versailles, 
on  the  5'*'  of  May  1789.  In  the  next  month,  they  declared  them.selves  as  representatives  of 
the  'Piers  fitats,  a National  Assembly  convened  to  consult  on  the  plan  of  a new  constitution. 
'I’he  King  was  now  compelled  to  promise  that  a whole  series  of  liberal  reforms  should  soon 
follow.  But  a concentration  of  troops  in  Paris,  and  the  dismissal  of  Necker  from  office  led 
to  an  insurrection  (on  the  13*''  of  July)  and  the  Bastile  was  destroyed.  Again  the  King  was 
driven  to  make  concessions  to  the  demands  of  the  people;  but  insurrection  broke  out  again 
on  the  5*''  of  October,  when  the  Royal  P'amily  and  the  National  .Assembly  were  removed 
from  Versailles  to  Paris.  Here  the  measures  luoposed  in  the  .Assembly  became  more  and 
more  radical  and  threatening,  until  the  King  was  alarmetl.  In  the  night  of  20  —21  June, 
1791  he  made  an  attempt  to  esca])e  from  Paris  and  gain  shelter  in  a fortified  place  on  the 
western  frontier;  but  in  the  course  of  his  journey  he  was  recognized  by  a postmaster  named 
Drouet,  and  after  detention  at  Varennes,  was  brought  back  to  Paris.  Here,  on  the  14'''  of 
.Sejitember,  he  with  tears  confirmed  by  an  oath  his  promise  of  a now  constitution.  'Phis 
concession  failetl,  however,  to  save  him  from  further  conflict.  In  the  Legislative  Assemby 
convened  on  the  1“  of  October,  it  was  projiosed  to  punish  jiriests  who  refused  to  take  the 
common  oath  of  citizens.  On  this  otcasion,  the  King’s  veto  caused  great  offence,  and  after 
his  dismissal  of  the  Girondist  Ministry,  his  deposition  was  planned  by  the  Jacobins.  On  the 
I 0*'“  of  August,  1792,  the  'Ptiilerics  were  stormed,  and  Louis  fled  for  protection  into  the  National 
■Assembly.  Here  it  was  resolved,  that  the  royal  power  should  be  susiiended,  and  the  King 
was  led,  as  a prisoner,  into  the  'Pemple.  He  was  next  formally  accused  as  a traitor  and, 
despite  his  dignified  defence,  was  condemned  to  death  by  a majority  of  the  National  Convent, 
on  the  17*''  of  January  1793.  On  his  way  to  the  scaffold,  he  maintained  his  calm  and  resolute 
demeanour,  and  his  last  words  were  these:  - /Frenchmen,  1 die  innocent;  1 pray  that  my 
blood  may  not  be  upon  France. « 

'Phe  unhaiipy  King  fell  as  a victim  to  the  sins  of  his  forefathers.  His  own  fault 
was,  that  he  was  not  born  to  be  an  energetic  ruler.  Slow  in  his  mental  powers,  and  deficient 
in  power  of  will,  he  was  not  ciiual  to  the  gigantic  work  of  raising  France  out  of  its  deiith  of 
ruin.  His  benevolent  disposition,  good  intentions,  and  purity  of  morals,  amid  the  corruiition 
of  his  Cotirt,  deserved  a better  fate. 


.-Ctfxv 


39 


• ' 


i 

■« 


Maria  Antoinette,  Wife  of  Louis  XVI,  Queen  of  France,  1774-^  1792 

Born  2 November  1755,  died  16  October  1793 


Maria  Antoinette,  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Francis  I and  his  wife  Maria  Theresia, 
was  born  on  the  2"*^  of  November,  1755.  When  hardly  fifteen  years  old,  she  was  married  to  the 
Dauphin  of  France,  who  acceded  to  the  throne  as  Louis  X\T.  Her  beauty  and  intelligence 
soon  won  his  esteem  and  affection,  but  failed  to  make  her  popular  in  France,  where  scandals 
were  spread  by  those  who  sought  her  ruin.  The  fact  that,  by  birth,  she  was  an  Austrian, 
excited  suspicions  against  her;  and  her  artless  freedom  of  manners  was  viewed  as  a breach 
of  Court-etiquette.  For  that,  indeed,  she  had  little  respect;  since  she  knew  that  too  often  it 
served  as  a veil  to  hide  vice.  However  excited,  these-  early  attacks  on  the  Queen’s  character, 
served  to  hasten  the  fall  of  the  throne. 

Meanwhile,  with  a courage  that  never  failed,  she  acted  as  the  support  of  her  husband, 
while  the  revolutionary  movement  was  increasing  in  violence ; and  her  firmness  commanded 
even  the  respect  of  her  enemies.  After  the  storming  of  the  'I'liileries,  the  royal  family  sought 
refuge  in  the  National  Assembly,  and  were  led  as  j)risoners  into  the  Temple,  where  most  barbarous 
means  of  increasing  their  sufferings  were  put  in  force.  'I’hc  Queen  was  separated  from  her 
husband.  Her  food  and  even  the  water  allowed  for  lier  use  were  closely  stinted,  and  everything 
like  comfort  was  denied.  At  last  she  was  led  out  to  her  trial,  where  she  had  to  meet 
accusations  of  most  incredible  offences,  and  all  defence  was  useless.  She  was  coiidemned  to 
death,  but  still  maintained  her  courage  and  dignity,  when  taken  to  the  scaffold.  Her  execution 
took  [dace  on  the  i6th  of  October  1793. 


40 


Georo-e  Washino-ton,  First  PrcsidcMit  of  llic  United  States 

lioni  22  I''cl)riiary  1732,  died  14  December  1799 


George  Washingt07i  was  born  in  Westmoreland  county,  Virginia,  in  1732.  At  flic 
age  of  twelve  he  lost  his  father,  and  his  youth  was  largely  spent  at  his  elder  brothers  estate 
of  Mount  Vernon,  on  the  I’otoinac.  At  one  time  he  had  comjiletcd  arrangements  for  entering 
the  British  naval  service,  and  had  his  clothes  packed  and  sent  on  board  a man-of-war,  when 
at  the  last  moment  he  gave  up  the  project  because  of  his  mother’s  objections. 

The  only  time  he  was  ever  at  sea  was  when  he  made  a voyage  to  Barbadoes,  at 

the  age  of  nineteen,  with  his  brother  T.awrence.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  entered  the  service 
of  Lord  Fairfax  as  a surveyor. 

His  Lordship  owned  large  estates  in  the  great  Virginia  valley , the  boundaries  of 

which  were  but  vaguel)’  defined,  and  the  task  of  surveying  them  involved  cam]nng  out  for 

weeks  in  the  wilderness  and  using  the  axe  and  the  rifle  as  well  as  the  compass  and  chain. 
In  1752,  with  a single  companion,  Washington  was  sent  by  the  governor  of  Virginia  to  carry 
an  important  letter  to  the  French  commander  on  the  Ohio. 

'I'he  journey  occupied  nearly  three  months,  in  winter,  and  was  full  of  perils  from 
cold,  from  half-frozen  rivers,  and  from  treacherous  savages.  Two  or  three  years  of  such 
experience  made  an  excellent  beginning  for  that  education  in  courage,  endurance,  cool  judgment, 
and  hardy  self-reliance,  which  fitted  him  for  the  task  of  carrying  through  a sevenyears’  war 
and  establishing  the  young  republic. 

In  1754  he  commanded  a regiment  of  the  troops  sent  against  the  French  at  Fort 
Duquesne  fnow  Pittsburgh  P^)  and  won  distinction  by  his  defence  of  Fort  Necessity,  though 
he  was  finally  compelled  to  capitulate.  The  next  year,  as  a volunteer  aid  to  General  Braddock, 
he  joined  the  new  expedition  that  marched  over  the  same  ground.  On  the  9'*’  of  July  Braddock’s 
force  fell  into  an  ambuscade  and  was  disastrously  defeated.  Washington  was  the  only  officer 
that  escaped  unhurt,  and  he  had  four  bullet-holes  in  his  coat.  It  is  clear  that  if  Braddock, 
who  knew  nothing  of  frontier  fighting,  had  listened  to  his  advice,  he  might  easily  have  been 
victorious. 

After  the  cessation  of  hostilities,  Washington  retired  to  Mount  Vernon,  wliich  he  had 
inherited  on  the  death  of  his  brother,  and  in  1759  he  married  Mrs.  Martha  Custis,  a wealthy 
widow.  He  was  several  times  a member  of  the  Virginia  Assembly,  and  was  elected  to  a seat 
in  the  first  Continental  Congress.  He  warmly  espoused  the  cause  of  the  colonies  against  the  mother 
country,  and  on  the  outbreak  of  war  in  1775  he  was  chosen  (June  14)  commander-in-chief  of 
the  Continental  armies.  He  hastened  to  Cambridge,  Mass,  and  there,  under  the  now  historic 
elm,  assumed  the  command.  His  history  for  the  next  seven  years  is  substantially  the  history 
of  the  war  of  Independence.  He  besieged  Boston,  held  by  a force  of  10,000  men,  bringing 
heavy  guns  from  old  Fort  Ticonderoga,  200  miles,  on  sleds,  and  compelled  the  evacuation  of 
the  city  in  March  1776.  He  then  marched  his  army  to  New  York;  but  in  August  he  was 
defeated  by  Sir  Henry  Clinton  in  the  battle  of  Long  Island,  and  the  subseciuent  action  at 
White  Plains  seemed  to  render  the  Colonial  cause  desjierate.  On  Christmas  night,  in  a storm, 
he  crossed  the  Delaware  with  his  little  army,  attacked  the  enemy  at  Trenton,  defeated  them, 
and  took  a thousand  jirisoners,  losing  but  nine  of  his  men.  A week  later  he  defeated  Corn- 
wallis at  Princetown.  But  in  September  1777,  a fresh  force  from  New  York,  under  Howe, 
defeated  Washington  at  the  Brandywine,  and  he  was  defeated  again  in  October  at  Germantown. 
'I'he  ensuing  winter  was  spent  by  the  Colonial  troops  at  Valley  horge,  amid  great  suffering 
from  cold  and  jirivation,  and  it  recpiircd  his  utmost  exertions  to  keep  the  army  together.  In 
the  summer  of  1778  the  British  evacuated  Pliiladelphia,  and  Washington,  following  them  toward 
New  Vork,  fought  an  indecisive  battle  at  Monmouth.  'I'he  next  important  movement  by  the 
Commander-in-chief  culminated  in  the  siege  of  \'orktown  by  tiie  combined  American  and 
Prench  forces,  where  Cornwallis  surrendered  in  October  1781.  This  jiractically  ended  the 
war,  though  the  enemy  did  not  leave  the  country  till  after  the  treaty  of  jicacc  was  signed  in 
1783.  \\’ashington  then  resigned  his  commission,  refusing  all  jiay  for  his  services,  and  retired 
to  his  home.  He  jilanncd  the  James  River  and  Potomac,  canals,  and  witli  the  shares  voted 
to  him  by  the  State,  he  endowed  a college  at  Lexington.  In  1787  he  was  a member  of  the 
convention  that  framed  the  constitution  of  the  United  States;  and  under  that  constitution  he 
was  elected  J’resident  and  was  inaugurated  in  New  \'ork  April  30''“  1789.  He  was  reelected 
in  1792,  but  declined  a third  term,  and  on  March  4*''  1797  retired  once  more  to  Mount 
Vernon,  where  he  died  from  the  effects  of  ex])osure  in  a snow-storm,  Dec.  14^''  1799. 

Washington  had  a robust  form,  over  six  feet  Iiigh,  with  a large  head,  brown  hair, 
and  blue  eyes.  He  seldom  spoke  in  deliberative  assemblies,  but  always  commanded  attention 
and  exercised  a jiowerful  influence.  He  was  a skillful  manager  of  his  own  estates,  exact  and 
methodical  in  all  his  ways.  He  had  no  children  of  his  own,  but  adoiited  several  nephews 
and  nieces,  and  was  very  hapjiy  in  his  domestic  relations.  His  numerous  slaves  were  liberated 
by  his  will. 


41 


Horatio,  Viscount  Nelson,  English  Admiral 

Born  29  September  1758,  died  2i  October  1805 


opportunity  to  win 
Commander  of  the 
services  were  not  a 
Indies,  he  married, 
in  quiet  retirement 


Horatio,  Viscount  Nelson  was  born,  29  September  1758,  at  Hurnham-Thorpe , in  the 
County  of  Norfolk,  of  which  his  father,  Edmund  Nelson,  was  the  rector.  When  only  twelve 
years  old,  he  was  led  by  his  own  choice  into  enter  the  naval  service,  in  a shij)  of  the  line 
commanded  by  his  maternal  uncle.  Captain  Suckling.  'I'he  boy,  in  spite  of  early  hardships, 
soon  gave  proof  of  courage  and  endurance  that  gained  for  him  the  well-deserved  approbation 
of  his  superiors.  In  1777  he  was  made  Lieutenant  and,  two  years  later.  Post  Captain.  'I’he 
English  expedition  against  the  Spanish  possessions  in  1780  gave  him  an 
distinction,  especially  in  Honduras  Hay,  and  in  1784  he  was  appointed 
Erigate  Boreas,  on  a cruise  off  the  Windward  Islands,  where  his  energetic 
little  favourable  to  England's  commercial  interests.  While  in  the  West 
(in  1787,)  and  afterwards  returned  to  England,  where  he  lived  with  his  wife 
for  some  years. 

In  1793  the  outbreak  of  war  against  France  called  him  back  to  service,  and  as 
Commander  of  the  Agamemnon,  he  was  sent  to  the  Mediterranean.  Here  he  took  a leading  part 
in  the  capture  of  Bastia,  and  in  the  victory  won  at  Calvi,  in  Corsica,  where  his  right  eye  was 
lost  in  the  action.  To  Nelson  in  great  part  belonged  the  victory  won  off  Ca])e  St.  Vincent, 
in  February,  1797.  He  then  captured  three  Spanish  shi])s  of  the  line,  and  made  the  enemy’s 
Admiral  a prisoner.  As  a reward,  he  was  made  Vice  Admiral.  In  an  attcmj)t  made  to 
capture,  near  Santa  Cruz,  a Spanish  fleet  — supposed  to  convey  much  treasure  in  silver  — 
he  lost  his  right  arm.  'Phis  was  not  made  a plea  for  refusal  to  accept  the  command  of  the 
fleet  sent  to  watch  the  harbour  of  'Poulon,  where  Napoleon  was  making  ready  his  fleet  for 
the  expedition  against  Egypt.  Aided  by  a storm,  this  fleet  escaped  from  the  harbour,  unnoticed 
by  Nelson.  But  he  followed  and  found  it  at  anchor  near  Abukir,  where  his  victory,  soon 
following,  utterly  destroyed  the  naval  power  of  the  enemy.  Nelson  was  now  created  Baron 
of  the  Nile  and  of  Burnham-Thorpe,  and  received  a pension  of  2000.  'I'he  King  of  Naples, 
who  now  declared  war  against  Lrance,  made  Nelson  Duke  of  Brenta.  h'rencli  troops  soon 
appeared  in  Naples,  whence  Nelson  was  compelled  to  escai)e  with  the  court  to  Sicily;  but  in 
July  1799,  he  brought  the  King  back  to  Naples.  Meanwhile,  Lady  Hamilton,  wife  of  the  English 
ambassador  there,  had  enslaved  the  hero,  so  far  that  he  stooped  to  obey  her  private  enmity, 
and  condemned  to  death  a primx'  over  whom  he  had  no  just  authority.  This,  the  one  great 
blot  on  his  character,  led  to  his  recall  to  England  in  1800. 

As  the  hero  of  Abukir,  he  was  received  with  the  highest  enthusiasm.  In  1801,  as 
\'ice  Admiral,  he  was  engaged  in  the  great  expedition  against  the  alliance  of  the  Northern 
Bowers,  and  gained  a victory  over  the  Danes  at  Copenhtigen.  On  his  return,  he  was  promoted 
in  rank  as  X'iscount  Nelson;  and  in  the  same  year  (1801)  he  made  an  unsuccessful  attack  on 
the  f rench  fleet  lying  off  Boulogne.  'I'he  Peace  of  .Vmiens  ga\e  him  rest  for  a time,  but  when 
the  war  was  renewed,  he  was  again  sent  to  the  .Mediterranean.  Here,  on  the  2 of  October, 
1805,  he  encountered  a united  Lrench  and  .Si)anish  s(iuadron  in  numbers  superior  to  his  own 
fleet.  In  the  terrible  light  that  followed.  Nelson  broke  through  the  enemy's  centre,  and  victory 
was  already  his  own  when  he  fell,  hit  by  a musket  ball,  coming  from  the  mizzen-top  of  a 
I'rcnch  ship.  His  remains  where  brought  to  London,  and  interred  in  St.  Baul’s. 

Nelson  was  one  of  the  greatest  English  .Admirals 
admirable  firmness  of  will  and  most  heroic  courage,  he 

his  jiious  submission  to  (iod's  will.  The  enthusiasm  that  filled  his  soul 
his  fellow-countrymen,  who  have  always  shown  a warm  sympathy  in  their 
memory. 


jiatriotism,  and  in 
spread  itself  among 
preservation  of  his 


m 

in  modern  times.  I'indowed  with 
was  also  exemplary  in  his  noble 


I 


William  Pitt,  the  Young-cr,  Itnolish  Statesman 

L’orn  28  May  1759,  died  23  January  1806 


William  I’itt,  the  Younger,  second  son  of  William  Pitt,  the  f)lder,  (Earl  of  Chatham,) 
and  his  wife  Hester  (nee  Crenville)  was  born  at  Hayes  in  Kent,  28  May,  1759.  His  father 
educated  him  for  the  diplomatic  career  in  which  he  gained  such  high  distinction.  In  1773  he 
entered  the  University  of  Cambridge,  where  he  earnestly  studied  the  ancient  classics,  and  |)aid 
also  much  attention  to  mathematics.  In  1778  the  decease  of  his  father,  who  left  behind  him 
but  a small  ])roperty,  compelled  him  to  provide  for  himself,  and  in  1780  he  went  to  London, 
where  he  intended  to  practice  as  an  attorney. 

In  January  1781  he  gained  — through  the  aid  of  the  Duke  of  Rutland  — a seat 
for  Appleby,  at  a time  when  English  politics  were  involved  in  difficulties,  at  home  and  abroad. 
True  to  the  example  set  by  his  father,  he  joined  at  first  the  ranks  of  the  Y hig  opposition 
to  North’s  ministry,  and  by  his  first  speech,  on  the  26*’’  of  February,  attracted  general  notice 
in  the  House  of  Commons.  After  the  fall  of  the  Tory  ministry,  1782,  he  prudently  declined 
to  accept  the  offer  of  a subordinate  place,  and  soon  by  his  proposals  of  liberal  measures  ' — 
such  as  Parliamentary  reform  — he  increased  so  much  his  popularity,  that  in  July,  1782,  he 
was  made  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  in  the  Ministry  of  Shelburne.  Some  negotiations  with  Fox, 
respecting  his  taking  a place  in  the  new  Cabinet,  followed,  but  were  failures,  and  henceforth 
the  two  great  orators  of  their  time  were  bitter  foes  in  politics.  The  coalition  Fox-North  prevailed 
over  Pitt’s  policy  in  1783,  but  only  for  a short  time.  M’hen  Fox  introduced  his  »India  Pill«, 
for  transfer  to  the  State  of  rights  belonging  hitherto  to  the  East  India  Company,  the  measure 
was  op])Osed  by  Pitt,  Avith  his  utmost  energy.  It  was  his  strong  opposition  that  led  King 
(ieorge  III  to  interfere  jiersonally  in  the  Upper  House,  and  cause  the  overthrow  of  the  bill, 

which  was  followed  by  his  dismissal  of  the  Coalition-Ministry.  Pitt,  then  made  Premier,  gained 

a majority  in  the  Lower  House,  and  brought  in  a new  India  Rill,  which  was  soon  passed.  This 
measure  made  the  Company  subject  to  the  control  of  a Commission  appointed  by  the  King, 
and  intended  to  secure  a reform  in  finance,  and  a restoration  of  the  jiublic  credit. 

As  at  home,  so  in  his  foreign  jiolicy,  Pitt  was  an  able  leader.  To  reimburse  England, 
in  some  measure,  for  her  losses  in  the  North  .American  war,  he  endeavoured  to  make  advantageous 
treaties  of  commerce,  and  to  extend  as  far  as  he  could  her  naval  jiower.  But  the  movement 
excited  by  the  French  Revolution,  led  him  to  join  the  aristocracy,  in  opposition  to  the  siiread 
of  democratic  ideas  in  Creat  Britain.  Here  he  would,  in  such  a dangerous  crisis,  rest  content 
with  the  rights  and  liberties  already  enjoyed.  He  therefore  joined  in  the  Avar  against  France, 
and  made  himself  the  very  soul  of  all  undertakings  against  the  Republic..  From  this  poli<')' 

he  refused  to  SAverve,  however  great  his  difficulties  at  home,  as  Avhen  the  Bank,  in  1797,  sto|)ped 

])ayment  in  gold.  In  1800,  to  meet  the  discontent  of  IrelaiAd,  he  brought  about  its  complete 
uniem  Avith  England,  ])artly  by  means  that  Avere  denounced  as  corru])t  or  coerciAe.  MeainAhile 
the  heavj'  sacrifices  made  by  England,  and  her  loss  of  allies  in'  the  Avar  against  France,  had 

excited  a general  cry  for  j)eace,  and  Pitt  resigned  office  iiA  1801.  In  the  next  year,  the 

Addington  ministr)'  concluded  Avith  Na|)oleon  the  Peace  of  Amiens.  But  iiA  1803  Buonai)art's 
policy  gave  rise  to  a neAV  Avar,  and  Pitt  nOAV  su|)i)orted  by  Fox  — found  it  easy  to  oAer- 
throw  Addington  and  to  make  himself  again  leader  of  the  government.  In  1804,  he  collected 
troops,  and  made  other  great  i)reparations  for  Avarfare;  then  formed  in  1805  another  coalition 
against  I ranee.  His  extraordinar)’  lalxjiir  and  Aveight  of  care  .had  now  utterly  consumed  his 
Jjhysi(xil  strength;  he  died,  23  January,  1 8ofi,  and  his  last  breath  expired  in  a |)rayer  for  the 

Avelfare  (d'  England.  His  remains  Avere  interred  in  Westminster  .\bbe)',  and  Parliament  granted 

a large  sum  for  the  payment  of  his  debts. 

It  is  an  honour  to  his  memorj',  that  he  did  not  make  a fortune  by  his  official 
career.  (,’(jld  and  proud  as  he  seemed  in  |)ublic  life,  he  was  cheerful  and  amiable  in  the 
society  of  his  friends.  He  was  ruled  only  by  one  passion  — ambition.  His  public  speeches, 
marked  by  clearness  in  i)lan  and  power  of  argument,  exercised  often  an  irresistible  power  over 
those  who  listened  to  them. 


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Napoleon  I,  Emperor  of  the  Freneli,  1804 — 1814 

]!orn  15  August  I76(),  died  5 May  1821 


Napoleon  I,  second  son  of  the  Patrician,  Oarlo  Bona])artc  and  his  wife,  Maria  I.etitia 
Raniolino,  was  born  at  Ajaccio  in  Corsica,  on  the  15*'’  of  August  1769,  and  was  educated  in 
tlie  military  schools  of  Bricnnc  and  Paris.  In  the  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution , he 
offered  his  services  to  the  Republic,  at  a time  when  political  disturbances  served  to  aid  the 
develoitement  of  his  ambition.  His  early  career  was,  therefore,  singularly  ra|)id,  and  success 
made  him  more  and  more  daring  in  the  measures  he  employed  to  gain  his  ends. 

'Phe  capture  of  Toulon  (ig  December  1793)  was  the  first  of  a long  scries  of  triumphs, 

in  which  the  military  genius  of  Napoleon  was  displayed.  In  1796  he  married  Josephine,  the 

widow  of  \'iscount  Beauharnais,  who  had  fallen  a victim  to  the  Revolution.  In  the  same  year, 
Napoleon  received  from  General  Barras,  an  appointment  as  Commander  in  Chief  of  the  Italian 
Army;  and  in  the  course  of  1796 — 1797,  the  whole  of  Upper  Italy  was  made  subject  to  his 
arms.  Further  successes  were  won  by  the  young  commander,  in  1798,  when  he  led  an 
expedition  to  Egypt  and  Syria.  His  return  to  F'rance  was  soon  folloxved  by  his  coup  d’etat 
of  the  18'’’  Brumaire  fi.  e.  9'’’  of  November)  1799,  by  which  the  rule  of  the  Directory  was 

ended;  and  in  1800  he  was  made  Fdrst  Consul  for  the  next  ten  years.  In  the  same  year,  he 

led  his  army  over  the  great  St.  Bernhard,  and  defeated  the  Austrians  at  Marengo;  in  1801, 
at  the  Peace  of  Luneville,  both  d’uscany  and  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  were  ceded  to  France ; 
in  1802  Napoleon  was  made  First  Consul  for  life;  and  on  the  i8‘'‘  of  May,  1804,  he  was 
proclaimed  as  hereditary  Emperor  of  the  French.  Then  followed  (1805)  his  great  victory  over 
the  Russians  and  Austrians  united  against  him  in  the  »battle  of  the  three  Emperors«,  at 
Austerlitz. 

Napoleon,  who  had  made  himself  almost  absolute  in  Europe,  now  founded  the  kingdoms 
of  Holland,  Najdes,  and  M'estphalia,  over  which  his  brothers  were  made  Kings;  and  as  Protector 
of  the  Rhein  bund,  instituded  in  1806,  he  secured  for  himself  a ruling  influence  in  most  of 
the  German  States.  Still  he  was  not  contented,  but  pressed  on  and  on  until,  by  his  victory 
at  Jena  (1806)  and  that  at  Friedland  (1807)  he  com])clled  Prussia  to  cede  all  the  lands  lying 
between  the  Rhine  and  the  Elbe.  In  1808  his  absolute  authority  was  asserteil  in  expelling 
the  House  of  Bourbon  from  Sjrain,  where  he  gave  the  crown  to  his  brother  Joseph. 

In  1809,  when  Austria  was  again  defeated,  the  battle  of  Wagram  closed  a series  of 
victories  too  numerous  to  be  enumerated ; and  Nai)oleon  was  now  thinking  of  founding  a 
dynasty.  I'or  this  ])Urposc  he  first  obtained  a divorce  from  his  faithful  and  noble  wife  Josephine, 
and  then  married  (in  Aj^ril  1810)  Marie  Luise,  daughter  of  Francis  I of  Austria.  'I'heir  desired 
son  and  heir,  born  in  1811,  was  entitled  King  of  Rome. 

'I'he  height  of  ambition,  so  ra])idly  attained,  was  succeeded  by  a »de('linc  and  iall« 
almost  as  ra])id.  In  1812,  Napoleon  led  to  .Moscow  an  army  of  more  than  400,000  men,  tor 
the  suljugation  of  Russia;  but  his  design  was  frustrated  by  the  burning  of  .Mos(a)w  in  the  same 
year  (Se])tember  14  — 21).  I'ailure  of  juovisions,  then  compelled  him  to  retreat.  Hunger, 
cold,  and  exposure  to  the  continuous  attacks  made  by  the  enem\',  destroyed  his  army.  Meanwliile 
Prussia,  now  reorganized,  had  made  an  alliance  with  Ru.ssia  and  Austria,  and  in  the  great 
fight  at  l.ei|)zig  (16  - 19  ( )ctf)ber  1813)  a \ ict(jry  was  won  over  the  forces  commanded  i)y  the 
hitherto  indomitable  Corsican.  In  the  next  year,  when  the  victorious  allies  entered  Paris,  he 
renounced  his  claim  to  the  throne,  and  retained  only  Elba  as  a sovereign  princii)ality ; but  his 
career  was  n<jt  so  ended.  ( )n  the  1"  of  .March,  1815,  he  landed  in  France,  w'here  the  magic 
of  his  name  was  powerful  enough  to  place  him  again  at  the  head  ol  the  army  and  — hailed 
by  the  petjple  as  their  Emperor  — he  returned  to  the  Tuileries,  there  to  reign  for  only  one 
»lumderl  days«.  At  last,  defeated  by  the  Allies  at  W'aterloo  (18  June  1815)  he  was  banished, 
as  a ])iisoner  of  war,  to  .St.  Helena,  where  he  dieil  on  the  5’''  of  May,  1821. 

Napoleon  was  one  of  those  i)haenomenal  men,  ai)pearing  now  and  then  in  the  course 
of  the  world's  history,  wlujse  greatness  is  to  be  chietly  ascribed  to  their  owm  powertul  will  and 
ability.  He  was  one  of  the  nurst  distinguished  among  all  the  military  heroes  ot  all  times;  but 
generous  feelings  of  humanity  and  other  virtues,  were  wanting,  to  make  him  a true  ruler  ot 
men,  and  worthy  of  such  a title  as  vlhe  Creat«. 


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Louis  XVIII,  King  of  France,  1814 — 1824 

Uorn  17  November  1755,  died  16  September  1824 


Louis  XVIII,  Stanislaus  Xaver,  fouith  son  of  the  Dauphin  Louis,  by  his  wife  Maria 
Josepha  of  Saxony,  was  born  at  Versailles,  on  the  17'*'  of  November,  1755,  and  in  his  earlier 
life  was  entitled  Count  of  Provence.  Under  the  government  of  his  brother,  Louis  XVI,  he 
took  a part  in  politics , and  gained  some  popularity ; but  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution 
induced  him  to  retire  from  public  life,  and  he  left  France  in  June  1791.  He  openly  protested 
against  certain  revolutions  of  the  National  Assembly;  and  a Court  was  collected  on  his  side 
at  Coblentz,  where  he  and  his  brother,  the  Count  of  Artois,  resided.  W'hen  the  Legislative 
Assembly  had  annulled  his  claim  to  the  throne  (in  January  1792)  he  took  part  with'  the 
Prussians,  then  operating  in  the  Champagne;  and  after  the  execution  of  Louis  XVI,  he  without 
delay  issued  a manifesto,  in  which  he  proclaimed  his  nephew,  the  Dauphin,  as  Louis  XV 11, 
while  he  took  for  himself  the  place  of  Regent.  At  his  residence  in  Verona,  he  was  known 
as  the  Count  of  Lille;  but  after  the  decease  of  the  Dauphin  1^1795)  he  assumed  the  King’s 
title.  To  escape  from  the  agents  of  Napoleon,  he  subscciuently  often  changed  his  place  of 
residence,  and  in  1807  made  his  escape  into  England. 

The  fall  of  Napoleon  led  to  the  issue  of  another  proclamation,  in  which  Louis  asserted 
his  claim  to  the  throne;  and  on  the  3‘’‘*  of  May,  1814,  he  entered  Paris  as  King.  His  first 
measure  was  to  grant  to  the  nation  (in  June  of  that  year)  a Character  of  constitutional  government, 
by  which  he  endeavoured  to  make  more  amicable  the  relations  of  the  King  and  his  subjects. 
Success  might  have  attended  the  well-disposed  ruler,  and  gradually  the  confidence  of  the  people 
might  have  been  won;  but  difficulties  were  raised  by  the  interference  of  supporters  of  the  old 
nobility  and  the  clerical  i)arty,  and  the  royal  charter  was  made  less  liberal.  .Vgain,  after 
the  »hundred  days«,  Lcniis,  who  now  resided  at  Ghent,  honestly  endeavoured  to  suppress  the 
reactionary  tendencies  of  his  opponents,  and  in  i8t6  a moderate  and  liberal  ministry  was  formed, 
to  mediate  between  contending  parties;  but  the  murder  of  the  Duke  of  Perry  (the  King’s 
nephew),  served  to  strenghten  the  jrarty  of  reaction , and  the  King  was  now  induced  to  send 
an  army  into  Spain,  there  to  restore  absolute  monarchy.  On  the  i6‘’‘  of  September,  1824, 
Louis  XVIII  died,  leaving  to  children.  With  his  last  breath  he  earnestly  entreated  his  successor, 
the  Count  of  Artois,  to  rule  in  accordance  with  the  principles  of  the  Charter. 

Louis  X\’III  was  not  destitute  of  talents  and  culture.  He  read  the  ancient  classics, 
studied  philosophy,  and  made  some  attempts  in  poetry.  Moderate  and  loyal  in  his  views  and 
his  own  |)olitical  measures  — he  deserved  to  be  classed  with  the  best  of  the  Pourbons,  and 
was  certainly  a belter  man  than  could  be  found  among  the  advisers  who  led  him,  against  his 
own  will,  into  a reactionary  policy. 


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Gilbert,  Mar(|uis  do  Lafayette,  b'renoli  Ciencral  and  Staatsman 

l!i)in  ()  Sc[ilcinl)fi-  1757,  died  20  M.iy  iSjj. 


Marie  Jean  I’aiil  Roeli  \'vcs,  (;ill)crt  Moticr,  Marquis  dc  l/afaycitc  was  Ijorii  at,  the 
('liatcau  C'liavagnac  in  the  Auvergne,  6 Sc])tcml)cr  1757.  Ilis  i)arcnts,  wlio  died  while  he 
was  young,  Averc  descended  from  an  ancient  family,  and  left  him  heir  to  their  large  estate. 
M'hen  only  sixteen  years  old,  he  married  a daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Ayen  — also  grand- 
daughter of  the  Duke  of  Novillcs  — and  by  this  union  made  himself  connected  with  some 
of  the  most  intluential  families  in  l'’rancc. 

Lafayette  Avas  stationed  as  a lieutenant  of  Dragoons,  at  Metz,  Avhen  he  heard  that 
the  North  American  Colonics  had  revolted  against  the  Lnglisch  government.  Seized  Avith  their 
enthusiasm,  he  fitted  out  a shi|i  at  his  own  cost,  and  sailed  for  North  America  — disregarding 
the  opposition  of  the  French  Court,  and  the  objections  urged  by  his  OAvn  family.  His  chivalrous 
character  Avon  for  him  the  friendship  of  Washington,  and  Congress  ajipointed  him  Ccneral- 
Major.  He  soon  gained  military  honours,  first  in  the  battle  of  BrandyAvine,  1 1 September 
1777,  and  subsequently,  in  several  engagements,  shoAA'ed  himself  a brave  and  able  Ceneral. 
Early  in  1779,  he  returned  to  France,  there  to  gain  support  for  the  revolution  in  America, 
and,  in  1780,  he  again  crossed  the  Atlantic,  to  cheer  the  colonists  by  a promise  that  French 
auxiliaries  Avould  soon  lie  sent  to  them.  The  defence  of  Virginia  was  noAv  confided  to  him, 
and  he  succeeded  in  his  endeavour  to  obstruct  the  Avay  of  Lord  ConiAA'allis,  so  that  Washington 
had  time  to  bring  up  his  forces  against  the  English  General,  shut  up  at  York  To Avn.  In  repeated 
attacks  on  the  place,  Lafayette  gained  the  highest  honours,  and  ConiAvallis  Avas  forced  to 
capitulate,  in  October  1781,  Avhen  the  fortune  of  the  Avar  Avas  decided.  Lafayette  then  returned 
to  France.  In  1784  he  again  visited  the  United  States,  and  the  colonists  made  great  ovations 
in  honour  of  their  hero. 

In  France  his  republican  principles  had  made  him  unAvelcome  to  the  Court,  and  he 
did  not  interfere  in  political  movements  until  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  when  he  Avas 
elected  to  represent  Auvergne,  in  the  Assembly  of  the  General  States.  Here,  on  the  1 1 
of  July,  1789,  he  made  his  celebrated  declaration  of  »the  rights  of  man«,  and  presided  over 
the  stormy  sessions  of  the  13^’’  and  14*''  of  July,  folloAved  by  his  ajApointment  as  General 
Commandant  of  the  neAvly  instituted  National  Guard,  then  collected  in  Paris.  His  services  in 
its  organization  deserved  the  highest  praise.  He  Avas  still  out  of  fa\-our  at  Court,  and  especially 
disliked  by  the  Queen,  on  account  of  his  advocacy  of  a thorough  reform,  although  he  saved 
the  royal  family  at  Versailles,  6 October  1789.  On  the  other  side,  he  offended  the  extreme 
democracy  by  his  programme  in  favour  of  a constitutional  monarchy,  representation  of  the  people, 
trial  by  jury,  religious  toleration,  emancipation  of  slaves,  freedom  of  the  press,  and  abolition 
of  hereditary  nobility.  'Phe  Constitution  of  the  14''' July  r 790,  for  Avhich  he  had  so  earnestly 
contended,  had  been  accepted  Avhen  he  resigned  his  office,  and  retired  to  his  rural  estate 
Lagrange.  From  this  retreat  he  'vas  called  by  the  outbreak  of  Avar  against  the  allies,  1792, 
Avhen  he  accepted  the  command  of  the  Ardennes  army,  and  on  several  occasions  led  it  to  victory. 
In  June  the  rising  of  the  populace  against  the  Ring  recalled  Lafayette  to  Paris;  but  his  eftorts 
here  Avere  not  successful.  He  could  neither  iiersuade  the  National  Assembly  to  punish  the 
riotors,  nor  induce  the  suspicious  King  to  accede  to  the  scheme  for  making  his  escajie  to 
Comjii^gne.  By  his  interference,  in  this  instance,  and  in  another  soon  folloAving,  Lafayette  offended 
the  extreme  re])ublicans,  Avho  treated  him  as  an  outlaAv  and,  finding  himself  unable  to  resist 
the  groAving  ])OAver  of  anarchy,  he  tried  to  esca[)e  into  Mamlcrs.  He  but  Avas  arrested  by  the 
Austrians  in  Rochefort  and  kcjit  in  close  imprisonment  until  1797.  Alter  his  liberation,  he 
refused  to  sacrcficc  his  jirinciples,  in  order  to  Avin  Napoleon's  favour,  and  therefore  retireil  to 
his  estate  Lagrange;  but  in  the  epoch  of  the  » Hundred  Days«,  he  again,  for  a short  time, 
took  a jiart  in  jiolitics,  and  es])ecially,  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  demanded  the  deposition 
of  Najioleon.  'Phe  negotiations  for  a truce  Avith  the  allies  Averc  aided  by  Lafayette,  and  alter 
1818  he  joined  as  a Dejnity  the  ranks  of  the  Extreme  Lett,  in  opposition  to  the  reactionary 
jiolicy  of  the  government.  In  1824,  accejiting  the  invitation  of  Gongress,  he  again  visited  the 
United  States.  On  his  return  to  Paris,  he  resumed  his  seat  as  a De|)Uty,  and  suiiiiorted  the 
Extreme  I. eft  jiarty,  until  the  |uly  ReAolution  of  1830.  He  now  acceqited  the  (annmand  of 
the  NatioiAal  Guard,  and  led  Louis  Phili|)|)e  to  ascend  a throne  stounded  on  the  iicojile  s 
sovereignty,  and  surrounded  Avith  republican  institutions. « But  soon  afteiAvards,  the  course  of 
events  induced  Lafayette  again  to  rank  himself  on  the  side  of  the  Plxtremc  Left.  He  tlied  in 
Paris,  20  May,  t834. 

Lafayette  Avas  a patriotic  man,  a lover  (jf  freedom,  inspired  Avith  a disinterested  enthusiasm, 
and  firm  in  his  convictioiAs.  .No  foreigner  had  ever  Avon  so  many  friends  as  hailed 
again  and  again  his  services  in  America;  he  loved  fame,  indeed,  but  tried  to  deserve  it.  He 
Avas  bold  to  a fault;  and  no  fear  of  re.s|)onsibility  or  of  danger  could  deter  him  from  his 
course,  Avhen  he  felt  it  his  duty  to  save  a life,  to  defend  the  helpless,  or  to  sui)|)oit  hiAV 
and  order. 


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William  IV,  King  of  Great  Britain,  Ireland  and  Hanover, 

1830  1837 

Born  21  August  1765,  died  20  June  1837 


William  IV,  Henry,  third  son  of  George  III,  by  his  marriage  with  Sophia  Charlotte 
of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  was  born  at  Windsor,  21  August,  1765.  In  1778  he  was  placed  as 
a Naval  Cadet,  under  Nelson,  and,  willingly  submitting  to  the  hardships  of  the  service,  he 
fairly  took  his  share  in  some  perilous  undertakings.  In  1786  he  was  advanced  to  the  post  of 
Captain  of  a frigate;  in  1788  received  his  titles  of  Duke  of  Clarence  and  St.  Andrews,  and 
Earl  of  Munster;  and  rose,  in  1789,  to  the  rank  of  a Vice-i\dmiral.  In  political  affairs  he 
did  not  disguise  his  sympathy  with  the  Whigs,  but  since  he  was  no  longer  allowed  to  take  a 
part  in  naval  warfare,  he  retired  more  and  more  from  public  life.  By  a morganatic  alliance 
with  an  actress  (Dora  Jordans,  of  Covent  Garden)  he  gave  offence  to  Parliament  and  the  Court, 
and  in  18 it  was  induced  to  treat  that  union  as  null  and  void.  He  married,  ii  June,  1818, 
the  Princess  Adelaide  of  Saxe-Meiningen.  On  account  of  his  small  apanage,  he  lived  for  some 
years,  remote  from  public  life,  at  his  country  seat  near  London;  but  his  position  was  changed 
by  the  death  of  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  York,  in  1827.  William’s  succession  to  the  throne 
being  now  made  nearer,  he  was  appointed  High  Admiral  of  the  Kingdom.  Acting  in  this 
capacity,  and  in  opposition  to  the  Wellington  Ministry,  he  sent  to  Admiral  Codrington  the 
secret  instruction  that  caused  the  naval  fight  at  Navarino,  1827,  which  was  soon  followed  by 
the  Duke’s  dismissal  from  his  high  office. 

Not  long  before  the  outbreak  of  the  July  revolution  in  France,  the  death  of  George  D', 
of  England,  raised  his  brother  William  to  the  throne,  26  June,  1830.  His  straight  forward 
address,  and  his  knowledge  of  naval  affairs,  gained  ])opular  favour.  For  a time  the  late  King's 
ministers  remained  in  office;  but  when  Parliament  met,  in  November  1830,  William  was 
convinced,  that  the  Wellington  Ministry  was  not  sujjported  by  the  nation,  and  he  therefore 
called  upon  the  Whigs  to  form  a new  government  under  Lord  Grey.  'I'he  chief  cpiestion  of 
the  day  was  that  of  Parliamentary  Reform.  Ivong  and  earnest  was  the  contest  following,  between 
the  Commons  and  the  Upper  House,  ami  threatening  disturbances  arose  among  the  people,  as 
in  Bristol,  where  an  insurrection  broke  out  in  1831.  'The  Reform  Bill  of  1832  ended  the 
agitation  for  a time;  but  other  (piestions  soon  arose  to  make  the  remainder  of  William’s  reign 
a stormy  ])eriode,  especially  vexed  by  contentions  respecting  the  Irish  Church,  and  the  law  of 
tithes.  For  a time,  (in  1834)  the  Tories  again  held  office,  but  the  Whigs  were  soon  recalled. 
Their  domestic  measures  left  but  s])are  time  for  any  great  measures  of  foreign  policy,  some 
attention  was,  however,  bestowed  on  their  relations  with  .Spain. 

William,  who  had  long  suffered  from  asthmatic  seizures,  and  at  last  was  afilieted  with 
dro])sy  of  the  chest,  died  in  the  night  of  19  and  20  June,  1837.  In  England,  he  was 
succeeded  by  his  niece,  Victoria;  but  in  Hanover  by  his  brother  Ernst  .August.  A new  fun- 
damental law  of  the  .State  for  Hanover  had  been  sanctioned  by  William  in  1833.  With  him 
ex])ired  the  |)ersonal  union  between  Hanoi’er  and  England,  that  had  existed  since  1714. 

Like  his  father.  Ring  William  had  simple  manners,  and  liked  more  tlnin  all  display, 
the  (|nietude  of  domestic  life.  Outward  shows  and  ceremonies  he  esjjecially  disliked;  and  he 
avoided  occasions  for  making  a diNi)lay  of  his  own  rank.  He  was  frank  in  the  expression  of 
his  o])inions.  In  politics,  he  was  mostly  inclined  to  agree  with  the  views  of  the  moderate  Whigs. 


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Arthur  Wellesley,  Duke  of  WelHno-ton,  British  General 

and  Statesman 

Born  I Mai  1769,  died  14  ScptcinBcr  1852 


Sir  Arthur  A\'clleslcy,  third  son  of  Oarret  Colley,  Viscount  Wellesley,  anrl  Earl  of 

Mornington,  was  born  i May,  1769,  at  Dungan  Castle,  in  Ireland,  He  was  educated  first  at 

Eton,  and  then  at  the  military  school  of  Angers  in  France.  In  1787  he  entered  the  army  as 
an  Ensign,  and  soon  afterwards  i)urchased  a commission  as  Lieutenant  Major  in  a regiment  of 
infantry.  After  service  in  Holland,  1794,  he  was  sent  to  India  in  1797,  and  here  won  high 
distinction  in  the  war  against  Tippo  Sail),  Sultan  of  Mysore,  1799,  and  later,  in  the  Mahralta 
war  of  1803.  He  returned  to  England  in  1805,  and  was  elected  Member  of  Parliament  for 
Newport.  'I'hough  his  services  in  the  House  of  Commons  were  not  remarkable,  he  was  appointed, 
in  1806,  Secretary  of  State  for  Ireland.  In  the  following  year,  when  the  British  Ministry  sent 
an  expedition  against  the  Danes,  to  prevent  their  alliance  with  Nai)oleon,  Wellesley  conducted 
the  negotiations  for  the  capitulation  of  Copenhagen. 

Creater  distinction  followed  his  military  success  in  Portugal  where,  in  1808,  he  arrived 
with  a corps  of  8000  men,  and  in  August  defeated  the  French  under  Junot,  at  Rolega  and 
at  Mineira.  In  1809,  when  the  French  Marshal  Soult  appeared  in  Portugal,  the  success  of 
^\'ellesley  was  continued.  The  French  forces  were  driven  back  by  his  attack  made  on  them 
near  Oporto;  he  then  pressed  forward  into  Spain,  and  here,  in  union  with  the  Spanish  army, 
gained,  in  July,  at  Talavera,  a victory  over  the  united  F’rench  armies  under  King  Joseph’s 
command.  Wellesley  was  now  made  Baron  Douro  of  Wellesley  and  Viscount  Wellington  of 

'Palavera.  But  reinforcements  of  the  French  army  soon  arrived,  and  compelled  him  to  lead 

oack  his  own  army  into  Portugal,  where,  in  the  summer  of  1810,  a French  army  of  80,000 
men,  led  by  Marshal  Massena,  appeared.  'Fhe  English  hero  now  availed  himself  of  a position 
long  ago  contrived  and  i)repared,  for  the  defence  of  Lisbon,  and  by  a cautious  retreat,  placed 
his  troops  behind  the  strongly  fortified  lines  of  Torres  Vedras,  which  Massena  dare  not  attack. 
Early  in  1812,  Napoleon,  when  making  his  pre])arations  against  Russia,  recalled  from  Spain  a 
part  of  the  French  forces  there.  Wellington  now  led  his  troops  again  into  Spain,  and  captured 
both  Ciudad-Rodrigo  and  Badajoz,  then  defeated  at  Salamanca,  22  July,  the  French,  now 
commanded  by  Marshal  Marmont,  and  by  this  victory  drove  King  Joseph  from  Madrid.  Soon 
afterwards,  however,  Soult’s  division  of  the  French  army  a])pcared  again,  and  Wellington  once 
more  retreated.  Early  in  1813,  he  was  made  (lommander  in  Chief  of  the  S])anish  army, 
and  in  June  his  glorious  victory  of  Victoria  made  sure  the  liberation  of  Spain.  By  that  great 
success,  the  French  army  led  by  Marshal  Jourdain  was  driven  from  the  field.  In  England  the 
rank  of  h'ield  Marshal  was  now  bestowed  on  the  victor,  and  the  Spanish  Cortes  made  him 
Duke  of  \’ictoria.  But  more  remained  to  be  done  before  tlie  Irench  could  be  utterly  driven 
out  Spain ; for  Soult  had  reorganized  his  defeated  army,  and  now  led  it  again  over  the  I’yrenees. 
Meanwhile,  ^\’ellington  cai)turcd  San  Sebastian,  in  .Sei)tember  18.13,  and  Pampelona,  in  October; 
he  gained  in  November  a victory  on  the  Nivelle,  and  in  1814  drove  back  Soult  to  tlie  walls 
of  'I'oulouse  which  was  surrendered  in  .Ajiril.  I'or  these  services,  M'ellington  was  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  Duke  of  Wellington  and  .Marijuis  of  Douro,  3 .May,  1814.  .After  the  first  of 

lebruary,  1815,  he  was  for  some  time  engaged  as  i)leni|)otentiary  at  the  ('ongress  of  N'ienna; 
but  was  again  called  to  the  field  by  Na])oleon's  landing  in  hraiice.  The  allied  forces  of 

Creat  Britain,  llanover,  Brunswick,  and  Holland,  were  now  commanded  by  Wellington,  and  at 
Waterloo,  18  June,  encountered  the  French  army  led  by  Napoleon.  Repeated  and  resolute 
attacks  were  most  bravely  resisted  by  the  allies,  and  their  victory  was  made  sure  by  the 
arrival  of  the  Prussian  forces  led  by  Blticher.  Wellington,  ma<le  Prince  of  Waterloo,  by  the 
King  of  Holland,  was  api)ointed  to  the  sui)reme  command  of  all  the  garrison  troops  left  in 
Irance  by  the  allies. 

.After  his  return  to  England,  Wellington,  in  the  Upper  House,  supported  more  and 
more  the  policy  of  the  extreme  conservative  jjarty.  In  1827  he  was  made  Chiet  Commander 
of  the  British  land  forces.  In  1828  he  was  first  l.ord  of  the  Treasury  in  the  Tory  Cabinet 
that  resigned  in  November  1830,  when  a Whig  .Ministry  was  formed.  llis  tirm  op|)osition  to 
Parliamentary  Reform  made  him  for  a time  unpoiuilar,  but  in  1834  35  he  was  .Secretar)'  of 

State  for  Foreign  Affairs,  and  from  1841  until  June  1846,  he  was,  as  a Minister  without  any 

distinct  department,  led  by  Peel  to  sui)port  the  ])olicy  of  Free  'Trade.  In  later  years,  he  lived 

far  remote  from  ])arty  strife,  and  enjoyed  the  favour  and  esteem  of  the  peopk'.  lie  died, 
14  Sei)tember  1852,  at  his  residence,  Wahner  Castle,  near  Dover,  and  was  interred,  with  royal 
pomp,  in  St.  Paul’s,  on  the  r8‘'‘  of  November. 

'I'he  greatness  of  Wellington  was  owing,  not  so  much  to  his  genial  ideas,  as  to  his 
acute  understanding  and  inflexible  will,  aided  by  a lively  sense  of  duty,  and  a dispassionate 
judgment. 


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('lemcns  Wenzel  Neponuik  Lothar  Prince  of  Melt(;rnieli, 

Austrian  Statesman. 

Horn  15  May  1773,  died  ii  June  1859 


C'lcmcns  Wenzel  Nei)oniuk  Lothar,  Prince  of  Metternicli-Winneburg,  horn  at  Coblenz, 
on  tlie  15"'  of  Mai,  1773,  was  descended  from  an  old  and  noble  family  in  the  Rhineland. 
His  father,  Francis  Ccorge  Charles  Metternich  ('who  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a I’rince  <jf 
the  Empire,  in  1803)  married  Maria  Heatrix  Aloisia,  nee  Countess  of  Kageneck,  and  Clemens 
W'enzel  was  their  oldest  son. 

After  a course  of  studies  in  Strasburg  and  Mayence,  he  began  his  diplomatic  career 
at  the  congress  of  Rastadt,  where  he  represented  the  Westphalian  Curial ; and  in  1803  he 
was  employed  in  a mission  of  more  importance.  As  ambassador  to  the  Court  of  Rerlin,  he 
was  so  far  successful,  that  in  1805  he  persuaded  Prussia  to  join  the  alliance  against  Na])oleon. 
In  1806  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Paris,  and  here,  by  his  pleasing  address  and  intluence 
in  society,  he  gained  the  favour  of  Napoleon,  and  was  thus  enabled  to  obtain  for  Austria  the 
favourable  concessions  made  by  the  treaty  of  Fontainebleau  (ro  October  1807).  When  the 
meeting  of  Napoleon  with  Alexander  of  Russia  had  taken  place,  Metternich  advised  Austria 
to  prepare  secretly  for  warfare.  This  plan  was  betrayed,  and  Napoleon’s  anger  was  of  course 
excited,  against  the  ambassador,  who  was  expelled  from  France  when  the  war  broke  out  (in 
•May,  1809).  After  the  defeat  at  Wagram,  Metternich  was  appointed  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs 
(8  October  1809)  and  now  to  prevent  a closer  union  of  France  and  Russia,  he  endeavoured  to 
conciliate  Napoleon,  whose  marriage  with  the  Arch-duchess  Marie  Luise  was  a result  which  the  Minister 
had  earnestly  desired.  His  policy  was  changed  after  Napoleon’s  disaster  in  Russia.  He  met 
the  Emperor  in  Dresden  (28  July  1813)  but  their  remarkable  conversation,  on  that  occasion, 
led  to  no  result.  It  was  now  the  plan  of  Metternich,  to  make  privately  })reparations  for 
joining  the  alliance  against  Napoleon,  and  first  he  was  careful  to  obtain  from  the  allied  powers 
such  concessions  as  would  be  favourable  to  Austria.  Henceforth  he  was  the  chief  leader  in 
European  diplomacy,  and  his  important  services  were  justly  rewarded.  After  the  battle  of 
Eeipsic,  he  was  made  a Prince  of  the  Fhnpire,  and  in  the  name  of  the  allied  Princes,  he 
signed  the  Peace  of  Paris.  He  was  the  soul  of  all  transactions  at  the  Eongress  of  \'ienna, 
where  he  acted  as  a mediator  among  the  powers  assembled ; but  never  failed  to  remember 
chiefly  the  claims  of  Austria.  His  able  diplomacy  — employed  also  at  the  several  congresses 
of  Aachen,  Karlsbad,  'I'roppau  and  Laibach  — won  for  him  honours  almost  as  extensive  as 
his  services. 

In  1818,  the  King  of  the  'I’wo  Sicilies  made  him  Duke  of  Portella,  and  in  1826 
the  King  of  Spain  conferred  on  him  the  rank  of  a ducal  (Irandee.  In  .Austria  he  was  ai)pointed, 
in  1821,  Chancellor  of  the  Household  and  the  State,  and  in  1826,  as  President  of  Ministerial 
Conferences  on  domestic  affairs,  he  attained,  in  fact,  the  highest  official  position  in  the  State. 
These  honours  were  retained  after  the  decease  of  the  Emperor,  Erancis  1 (1835). 

The  policy  of  .Metternich  was  founded  on  the  principle  of  stability,  implying  the 
( onservation  of  established  forms  of  government;  and  on  this  principle  he  contendetl  for 
the  preponderance  of  Austrian  i)olicy.  Princes  (he  maintained)  must  rule  o\'er  the  destinies 
of  their  subjects,  and  must  be  responsible  to  Cod  alone.  The  aid  given  by  Russia  to  the 
Creek  insurrection  was  (as  Metternich  believed)  a great  crime.  .At  home,  he  woukl,  for  the 
sake  (jf  ijcack,  suppress  every  idea  of  re\  olution ; every  popular  notion  of  liberty.  Aceortlingly, 
he  maintained  a strict  censorship  of  the  press,  and  spread  over  the  realm  the  power  of  a well 
organized  police.  This  despotic  p(jlicy,  led  at  last  to  the  revolutionary  outbreak  of  1848;  so 
violent  that  Metternich,  (whose  life  was  threatened)  made  his  escape  to  England  ( 1 3''’  of  March) 
and  did  not  return  until  .November,  1849,  when  he  first  came  to  llrussels;  then  (in  June  1851) 
retired  t(j  his  estate  Johannisberg  in  the  Rheingau.  In  Sej)tember  he  returned  to  \'icmia, 
where  henceforth  he  took  no  official  luirt  in  politics.  Far  advanced  in  years,  he  died,  on  the 
ii‘’‘  (jf  June  1859,  five  years  after  the  decease  of  his  third  wife,  the  Countess  Melanie  Ziehy- 
Ferraris. 

Metternich’s  chief  merit  was,  that,  with  a masterly  hand,  he  piloted  the  .Austrian 
State  trough  all  the  dangers  of  that  critical  year,  1813.  He  knew  — as  hardly  another 
diphjinatist  has  known  how  to  educe,  out  of  certain  given  circumstances,  the  greatest 

possible  advantage,  and  how  to  evatle,  or  overcome,  the  ilifliculties  attending  his  own  measures. 


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4 


Jerome  Bonaparte,  King  of  Westphalia,  1807  1813 

Born  15  November  1784,  died  24  June  i860 


Jer6me  Bonaparte,  the  youngest  brother  of  Napoleon  I,  was  born  at  Ajaccio,  on  tne 
15^'’  of  November  1784.  In  1792,  when  Paoly,  as  president  of  the  department  C'orsica,  had 
proscribed  all  opponents  of  the  English  party  in  Corsica,  the  Bonaparte  family  escaped  to 
Marseilles,  and  soon  afterwards  Jerome  — having  concluded  his  course  of  studies  in  the  college 
of  juilly  — enlisted  as  a common  soldier  in  a regiment  of  cavalry.  He  had  gained  some 
distinction  in  Elba,  when  he  was  advised  by  his  brother  Napoleon  to  enter  the  naval  service. 
Passing  quickly  trough  lower  duties  of  the  Marine,  he  took  the  command  of  the  brig  L’Eper- 
vier , and  was  soon  engaged  in  charge  of  French  stations  in  the  Lesser  Antilles.  To  avoid 
English  cruisers , he  returned  by  way  of  the  Pmited  States , and  during  his  stay  in  America, 
he  married  Eliza  Paterson,  daughter  of  a rich  merchant  in  Baltimore.  His  brother  Napoleon 
having  declared  this  marriage  null  an  void,  denied  the  legitimacy  of  the  children,  and  Jerome 
in  1805,  when  he  had  returned  to  France,  was  thus  led  to  separate  himself  from  his  wife. 

As  a Captain  engaged  in  a squadron  commanded  by  Admiral  Villaumez,  Jerome  next 
gained  distinction  in  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Atlantic  and  consequently  (in  1806)  was  raised 
by  Nnpoleon  to  the  rank  of  Vice  Admiral.  Soon  afterwards  he  was  made  General  ot  a 
Brigade  in  the  land  army,  and  led  Bavarian  and  Wiirtemberg  troops  in  the  war  against  Prussia. 
In  this  campaign  he  conquered  Silesia. 

At  the  Peace  of  'I'ilsit  (1807)  his  services  were  richly  rewarded.  .V  kingdom  was 
made  for  him  by  the  union  of  territories  taken  away  from  Hessen-Cassel,  Hanover,  and  several 
other  States,  over  which  Jerome  — now  entitled  King  of  M'est])halia  — formally  ruled.  But 
he  never  reigned  in  the  hearts  of  his  subjects.’  In  accordance  with  his  assumed  royalty,  he  now 
was  married  to  Catherine,  daughter  of  the  King  of  M'iirtemberg.  The  Court  of  Westphalia 
displayed  a love  of  splendour  and  a careless  expenditure ; but  Jerome  could  win  neither  the 
love  nor  the  esteem  of  his  subjects,  who  regarded  with  suspicion  and  secret  aversion  the 
King  imposed  upon  them. 

He  served  as  a General  in  the  campaign  against  Austria  (1809)  and  in  that  against 
Russia,  .'\fter  his  brother’s  fall  and  during  his  confinement  in  Elba,  he  lived  at  Trieste,  but 
was  active  again  during  the  »hundred  days*,  and  commanded  the  left  wing  at  Waterloo. 
W’lien  the  battle  was  lost,  and  Na])oleon,  resolved  to  die  here,  placed  himself  at  the  head  ol 
the  Guards,  his  brother  Jerome  addressed  to  him  (we  are  told)  these  words:  »Here  all  must 
die  who  bear  the  name  of  Bonaparte.*  But  Jerome  lived  many  years  after  that  disaster. 
When  his  brother  was  sent  to  St.  Helena,  he  was  surrendered  as  a juisoner  to  Prussia,  and 
was  for  some  time  confined  in  G(")p|)ingen ; afterwards  in  Ellwangen.  Released  by  the  intervention 
of  his  father-in-law,  he  lived  for  some  time  in  Rome,  and  returned  to  Prance  in  1848,  where 
his  rights  as  a Prince  were  restored  to  him.  He  died  on  the  24'’*  of  June,  i860. 


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